Theistic vs. Non-Theistic Hindu Traditions Theistic Traditions: Devotion to a Supreme Personal Being (God) Non-Theistic Traditions: Devotion to Self-Inquiry and Self-Knowledge Vaishnavism (worship of Vishnu or Krishna) Shavism (worship of Shiva) Shaktism (worship of the Goddess) Smartism (worship of one’s “chosen deity”) Sankhya Mimamsaka Yoga (Patanjali’s Yoga) Advaita Vedanta

Review Point The early Upanishads (circa 800 – 600 BCE): Brahman is the ultimate, impersonal reality, transcendent to the universe, and yet in some sense immanent in the universe. Some of the later Upanishads affirm the existence of a single, transcendent personal God (Purusha, Deva), in some cases higher than Brahman.

Brahman as Personal God The Upanishads also refer to Brahman under various attributes (saguna Brahman), including those indicative of personhood: knowledge, will, and moral goodness (Svetasvatara Upanishad, VI.1-23). Some passages in Mundaka Upanishad subordinate imperishable Brahman to the supreme “Purusha” (person). Other later Upanishads emphasize personal theism (e.g. Katha, Isa, and Svetasvatara). See R.C. Zaehner, Hindu and Muslim Mysticism, chapter 2. “Heavenly, formless is the Person [Purusha], He compromises without and within, unborn is he; without breath, without mind, effulgent, higher than the high imperishable [i.e., Brahman].” Mundaka, 2.I.2 Cf. 3.I. 13.

Beyond the Upanishads The Evolution of the Personalist Conception of the Absolute

Devotional Vedic-Hindu Traditions

Evolution of Bhakti Traditions Epic Period (500-200 BCE), the Mahabharata epic text, especially the Bhagavad Gita. Gupta Period (4th to 6th century CE): composition of the Puranas – stories of gods and goddesses. Hindu theology. Bhakti Renaissance (6th to 9th century CE): revival and spread of devotional theism throughout India.

Vaishnavism: Worship of Vishnu or Krishna as the Supreme Being.

Bhagavad Gita and the Vaishnava Traditions

The personalist understanding of Brahman is central to the Bhagavad Gita (circa 200 BCE). Krishna is avatara (God who “descends” in human form). The impersonal Brahman is subsumed under an aspect of Lord Krishna (e.g., Gita, 14:27).

Lord Krishna The Bhagavad Gita presents Krishna as the manifestation of God on earth. While the Gita emphasizes the loving friendship between Krishna and warrior Arjuna, the text emphasizes Krishna’s aishvarya (Lordship) qualities, his godlike qualities that instill awe and reverence. (See Gita, ch. 11)

The Gita likely reflects the existence of Vishnu-Krishna worship (Vaishnavism) in India at the time of its composition, but the text became a centerpiece in the spread and eventual ascendency of Vaishnavism in India in the common era. The worship of Krishna as a divine being prior to the common era is found in a variety of textual and archeological sources. Krishna is not a post-Christian Indian invention designed to mimic Christianity. See Krishna: The Beautiful Legend of God (Srimad Bhagavata Purana, Book X), trans. Edwin F. Bryant (Penguin Books, 2003), “Introduction,” pp. xvii-xviii.

Gupta Period 4th to 6th Century CE

The Puranas Hindu devotional traditions are also based on the various texts called the Puranas, which were composed largely during the Gupta period (circa 320-500 century CE), and revised during the medieval period. The Puranas are conceptually influenced by aspects of both the Upanishads and Epic literature. As such they are an interesting blend of non-dual philosophy, cosmology, and theism.

The Puranas The Puranas are essential for understanding worship of the gods in the mainline devotional traditions of India today. Although acknowledging many of the different gods of the Hindu pantheon, the Puranas demonstrate the rise in popularity of the worship of Vishnu and the worship of Shiva as the Supreme being. Some of the Puranas are written from a sectarian viewpoint in which Vishnu or Shiva is the Supreme being, and all other gods are subordinate entities. Historically, many Vedantins were Vaishnavas.

Srimad Bhagavatam (4th – 6th centuries CE): Krishna is presented as the Supreme Being who descends to earth to destroy demons and protect the righteous, but his madhurya (sweetness) qualities are also emphasized, i.e., his attractive human qualities that engender intimacy and hence are essential to the cultivation of various moods of bhakti (loving devotion to God). Krishna as the flute playing cow herder attracting the gopis (milkmaids) of Vrindavana.

Vaishnava Traditions Vaishnavism designates a variety of different traditions centered on the worship of Vishnu (or Krishna) and his many expansions or manifestations. Some Vaishnava traditions (dvaita) are strongly dualistic in nature, affirming a distinction between God, the world, and souls. Others (Vishishtadvaita) are non-dualistic with qualification: souls are part of God’s being. Others (Gaudiya Vaishnavism) affirm the simultaneous difference and non-difference between the Self and God. For more on Gaudiya Vaishnavism, see “Gaudiya Vaishnava Resources” at michaelsudduth.com.

Shaivism: Worship of Shiva as the Supreme Being. Saiva Siddhanta: Dualistic – Shiva and the devotee are distinct. Kasmir Shaivism: Non-dualism – Shiva and the devotee are non-distinct, whose essential nature is consciousness. Vaishnavism and Shaivism each tend to incorporate aspects of the feminine, which is central to Shaktism. Shaivism draws heavily from its textual tradition of Shaiva Tantra texts.

Shaktism: Worship of Shakti or Devi – the Divine Mother – as the Supreme Being. Rooted in the Puranas and Tantric texts. Less clearly defined than Vaishnavism and Shaivism. Often indistinguishable from Shaivism. See Flood, Introduction to Hinduism, ch. 8. Important textual source, Markandeya Purana (circa 5th-7th century).

Durga – warrior manifestation of Shakti

Kali – feminine power of destruction

Smartism: Worship of one’s own chosen deity as one among many different manifestations of formless Brahman. Philosophically grounded in Advaita Vedanta.

Brahma Vishnu Shiva The Non-Dual interpretation of Brahman implies that “gods” represent different provisional manifestations of formless Brahman. The Trimurti was systematized in the Puranas composed during the Gupta Period (320-540 CE), after the ascendency of the Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva, “God forms” were widespread in Indian culture.

The Bhakti Renaissance Between the 6th and 9th centuries CE devotion to Vishnu-Krishna grew in intensity in South India among many poets and mystics. A parallel Bhakti movement focused on worship of Shiva was widespread in India by the 8th century CE, originating in Tamil Nadu. These were known as the nayanmars.

The Alvars The mystics of South India were called Alvars (alvar, Tamil, one who rules the world by his love of God). They were instrumental in the Renaissance of the bhakti teachings of the Gita and Bhagavata Purana. The bhakti movement eventually made its way into Northern India around the time Northern India came under Islamic rule by the 13th century. The Bhakti renaissance, which had a lasting impact on the religious culture of India, would play an important role in shaping the great medieval tradition of Hindu philosophy called Vedanta.

While the “popular” axis of Hindu revival in India by the 7th century took the form of devotional theism, primarily in the form of various Vaishnava and Shaivite sects, the “scholarly” axis of the revival resulted in Vedanta, which emerged between the 7th and 8th centuries. Important Intersection between the Popular and Scholarly Axes of the Hindu Revival Many of the great Vedantin philosophers, e.g., Ramanuja and Madhva, were personally committed to and engaged in devotional theism (bhakti), specifically Vaishnavism.

References Steven Rosen, Essential Hinduism (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2006). Gavin Food, Introduction to Hinduism (Cambridge, 1996) R.C. Zaehner, Hindu and Muslim Mysticism (New York: Schocken Books, 1969), Chapters 2-4. R.C. Zaehner, Hinduism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1972). Swami Prabhavanda, The Spiritual Heritage of India: A Clear Summary of Indian Philosophy and Religion (Hollywood, CA: Vedanta Press, 1979), Chapters 1-3. Keith Ward, Concepts of God: Images of the Divine in Five Religious Traditions (Oneworld, 1998), Chapters 1-2. Hans Torwesten, Vedanta: Heart of Hinduism (New York: Grove Press, 1991), Chapter 1. Dominic Goodall (ed.), Hindu Scriptures (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1996). Edwin Bryant (ed., trans.), Krishna: The Beautiful Legend of God (Srimad Bhagavata Purana, Book X) (Penguin Books, 2003), “Introduction,” pp. xvii-xviii.