Political life

I/ Political institutions II/ Parliamentary reform up to 1832 III/ The 1832 Reform Act IV/Chartism V/ Later political reforms VI/ Political parties

I/Political institutions

A-The Crown Considerable power over the 19th century, but overall decline. Monarch chose the PM until 1832. Close collaboration of Victoria and Albert with their PMs 1894: Victoria ignored Gladstone’s advice about his successor.

B-The Prime Minister and the Cabinet Political staff became more professional The role of the PM increased and his status changed  from « Her Majesty’s Service » to a direct relation with the country. Growing role of the Cabinet (executive + legislative).

C-Parliament 1°) The House of Lords Declining role, but still powerful. Composed of hereditary peers and some bishops. Defended the interests of the land-owning aristocracy (1831-32: opposed the Reform Bill; 1815-1846: defended the Corn Laws). Tory stronghold

C/ Parliament 2°) The House of Commons From the Lower House to the main legislative body. More and more people elected MPs  legitimacy increased.

II/ Parliamentary reform up to 1832

A- «Old corruption » 1°) Franchise Suffrage limited to male owners of freehold property or land worth at least 40 shillings. Only 3% of the population could vote for an MP (gentlemen with land, well-to-do farmers and merchants).

A/ « Old corruption » 2°) Territorial divisions « Constituencies » = counties (land  landholders) and boroughs (towns and their immediate surrounding territory  mercantile and trading interests ). 1 county / borough = 2 MPs (on average).

A/ « Old corruption » Largest county = Yorkshire = 20 000 voters Smallest counties = Rutland and Anglesey = <1000 voters each Largest borough = Westminster = 12 000 voters Smallest boroughs = Dunwich (32), Camelford (25), Gatton (7).

Definition in the Oxford English Dictionary rotten borough (noun) British historical a borough that was able to elect an MP despite having very few voters, the choice of MP typically being in the hands of one person or family.

John Constable, Old Sarum, 1829

A- « Old corruption » 3°) Corruption Intimidation For voters For MPs Bribery (= buying votes) 1771 in New Shoreham: 81 voters  society which sold the borough to the highest bidder.

Definition in the Oxford English Dictionary pocket borough (noun) (in the UK) a borough in which the election of political representatives was controlled by one person or family. Such boroughs were abolished by the Reform Acts of 1832 and 1867.

B-The struggle for reform Radicalism and early reform movements Thinkers and theorists Popular pressure

Thomas Paine (1737-1809) Pamphleteer, inventor...and Founding Father of the United States 1791: The Rights of Man Vote = natural right

Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) 1792: A Vindication of the Rights of Woman

William Cobbett (1763-1835) Pamphleteer, farmer and journalist. Founder of Hansard Took part in the movement which led to the 1832 Reform Bill MP for Oldham

Popular pressure Popular disappointment Agitation Peterloo Massacre (August 16, 1819)

1820s+1830s: slump in the economy rioting (cf Swing Riots 1830) 1830: Revolution in France. Whigs convinced that moderate Parliamentary reform was the best way to avoid a revolution 1830: death of George IV (against reform) and accession of William IV (reluctantly willing).

III/ The 1832 Reform Act

The 1832 Reform Act

A/ The Act and its effects redefined constituencies (many « rotten boroughs » disenfranchised) increased the number of individuals allowed to vote  from 478 000 to 813 000 (i.e. from 3% to 7% of the overall British population, but 1 adult in 5 in England) nationalised and modernised British politics admitted the urban middle class to political life

B/ Limits Some « rotten boroughs » remained Influence of the House of Lords undiminished No representation of women or the working class Ballots were still not secret

IV/ Chartism

A/ Origins 1837: foundation of a committee by 6 MPs and 6 working men (including William Lovett 1800- 1877) May 1838: publication of the People's Charter June 1839: petition presented to Parliament (which voted to not even hear the petitioners...)

B/ The early 1840s 1839: Newport Rising  disaster in political and military terms. May 1842: second petition, once again rejected. 1842: strike in 14 English and 8 Scottish counties

C/ The 1848 petition and the end of the Chartist movement Context of Revolution throughout Europe. 3rd petition allegedly signed by 6 million people (only 2 million signatures proved). Procession planned from Kennington Common to Westminster. Once more rejected  last serious Chartist demonstration.

D- Analysing the failure of Chartism From the « Hungry Forties » to economic prosperity Subdivisions and hierarchy in the working class Respect rather than antipathy for the middle class BUT all the points of the People's Charter save one were adopted by 1918

V/ Later political reforms (1867-1918)

A-The 1867 Second Reform Act 1°) Causes 1860s  demand for parliamentary reform revived. Expansion of industrial areas, but no redistribution of seats. Influence of American Civil War. PMs Russell and Gladstone (Liberals) failed to pass the Bill. Bill finally passed by Disraeli (Conservative).

A-The 1867 Second Reform Act 2°)Effects Redistribution of seats. From 1.36 million to 2.46 million voters (1 in 3 adult men). Finally gave the vote to skilled workers (!!no compulsory education yet!!).

A-The 1867 Second Reform Act 3°)Limits Counties  agricultural workers + miners in rural pits still had no access to the vote. Still no secret ballot. Distribution of seats still unsatisfactory. BUT Too many voters to bribe. Party organisation.

B-The 1872, 1884 and 1918 Acts 1872 Ballot Act  secret ballot 1884 Parliamentary Reform Act only passed under pressure from Joseph Chamberlain (=radical Liberal) and the Queen. Gave farm workers the vote + seats redistributed in 1885. 1918 Representation of the People Act: universal male suffrage + vote for women over 30.

VI/ Political parties

A-From the Tories to the Conservatives First half of the century: party of landowners 1846: split over the Repeal of the Corn Laws. After the split, rising star = Benjamin Disraeli (PM 1868 + 1874-1880). Tried to create a mass party. From the party of landowners to that of business, of the residential suburbs and the South East.

B-From the Whigs to the Liberals 17th century party meant to defend public liberties + religious toleration. Early 19th century  party of reform. From 1832 onwards: social composition changed (manufacturers, intellectuals nonconformists). William Ewart Gladstone: PM on 4 occasions, totalling 13 years in office between 1868 and 1894.

C-Towards the creation of the Labour Party 1884 Parliamentary Reform Act: 1/3 of adult males still had no vote (mostly unskilled workers). Labour party formed with the help of several groupings, including trade unions. Influence of socialism (Karl Marx in England for 40 years).

C-Towards the creation of the Labour Party 1884: Fabian society = intellectuals advocating socialism through ‘evolution’ rather than ‘revolution’ (G.B. Shaw, H.G. Wells, etc.) 1900: Labour Representation Committee. 1906: Labour Party.

Conclusion Some changes were granted as a way to avoid a social revolution. All changes were gradual and progressive. At the beginning of the 20th century, some men and all women still had no right to vote.