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1 C H A P T E R WHAT IS ANTHROPOLOGY? 1-2

WHAT IS ANTHROPOLOGY? Human Diversity General Anthropology The Subdisciplines of Anthropology Anthropology and Other Academic Fields Applied Anthropology

WHAT IS ANTHROPOLOGY? What distinguishes anthropology from other fields that study human beings? How do anthropologists study human diversity in time and space? Why is anthropology both scientific and humanistic?

What is Anthropology?

What is Anthropology?

HUMAN DIVERSITY Anthropology: explores human diversity across time and space; study of human species and its immediate ancestors; of particular interest is the diversity that comes through human adaptability Humans – most adaptable animals; use biological means for adaptation Unique in using cultural adaptations to environments

Human Diversity Anthropology is the study of humans and their immediate ancestors Uniquely comparative and holistic: study of the whole of the human condition—past, present, and future; biology, society, language, and culture Society – organized life in groups Cultures: traditions and customs, transmitted through learning, that form and guide the beliefs and behavior of the people exposed to them (traditions include customs and opinions, developed over generations, about proper and improper behavior.

Human Diversity

Human Diversity

ADAPTATION, VARIATION, AND CHANGE Adaptation: process by which organisms cope with environmental forces and stresses Humans adapt using biological and cultural means Altitude – technological, genetic, long term physiological, and short term or immediate physiological adaptations. Social and cultural means of adaptation have become increasingly more important for human groups

ADAPTATION, VARIATION, AND CHANGE Rate of change accelerated during past 10,000 years Foraging was sole basis of human subsistence for millions of years It took only a few thousand years to develop food production: economy based on plant cultivation and/or animal domestication Spread of industrial production profoundly affected human life Each economic revolution has had social and cultural repercussions.

RECAP 1.1: Forms of Cultural and Biological Adaptation (to High Altitude)

GENERAL ANTHROPOLOGY General anthropology: academic discipline of anthropology, also known as “four-field” anthropology, includes: Sociocultural (cultural anthropology) Archaeological Biological/Physical Linguistic

GENERAL ANTHROPOLOGY Developed as scientific field in U.S. Early American anthropologists studying native peoples of North America combined studies of customs, social life, language, and physical traits in the 19th century Where did the Natives come from? How many waves of migration to the New World were there? What are the linguistic, cultural, and biological links among Native Americans and between them and Asia? Four field anthropology also helps to explore the relationship between biology and culture. Answers to key questions often require an understanding of both human biology and culture and of both the past and present.

Where did we come from?

GENERAL ANTHROPOLOGY Subdisciplines explore variations in time and space to improve our understanding of human biology, society, culture, and their interrelations. Biology and culture influence each other Sound conclusions about “human nature” cannot be derived from studying a single nation, society, or cultural tradition Human nature must be pursued with a comparative, cross-cultural approach.

CULTURAL FORCES SHAPE HUMAN BIOLOGY Biocultural: combining biological and cultural approaches to a given problem Culture is key environmental force determining how human bodies grow and develop Cultural traditions promote certain activities and abilities, discourage others, and set standards of physical well-being and attractiveness Cultural standards of attractiveness and propriety influence participation and achievement in sports and other activities

THE SUBDISCIPLINES OF ANTHROPOLOGY Cultural anthropology Archaeological anthropology Biological, or physical anthropology Linguistic anthropology

CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY Describes, analyzes, interprets, and explains social and cultural similarities and differences Ethnography: fieldwork in a particular culture; provides an account of that community, society, or culture Traditionally tended to emphasize local behavior, beliefs, customs, social life, economic activities, politics, and religion Often focuses on local people (often the poor and powerless) Looks at links between local, regional, national, and global systems of politics, economics, and information that affects people’s lives Ethnology: comparative, cross-cultural study of ethnographic data, society, and culture Uses data to identify and explain cultural differences and similarities, test hypotheses, and form theories about social and cultural systems

Cultural Anthropology Anth. differs from other social sciences (like economics or political science) in its focus on local people (often poor and powerless) rather than the policy and decision makers of elites. Cultures are not isolated - ethnographers must investigate the linkages of local, regional, national, and global systems of politics, economics, and information that affect people’s lives across the world. ETHNOLOGY examines, interprets, analyzes, and compares the results of ethnography; compares and contrasts the data gathered in different societies to make generalizations about society and culture and to identify and explain cultural differences and similarities, to test hypotheses, and to form theories that enhance our understanding of social and cultural systems.

Ethnographic Fieldwork

RECAP 1.2: Ethnography and Ethnology— Two Dimensions of Cultural Anthropology

ARCHAEOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY Study of human behavior and cultural patterns and processes through culture’s material remains; reconstructs patterns of production, trade, and consumption. Artifacts – material items that humans have made, used, or modified (potsherds, jewelry, tools) Garbage Burials Remains of structures Answers questions like “Did they get their meat from hunting or from domestication and breeding?” “Did plant food come from wild plants or from sowing, tending, and harvesting crops?” “What raw materials were available to them?”

Archaeology

ARCHAEOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY Many archaeologists examine ecology: study of interrelations among living things in an environment Paleoecology looks at ecosystems of the past Use paleoecology to examine intersections of nature and human culture and how they influence each other Possible to infer cultural transformations Reconstruct behavior patterns and lifestyles of the past

Ecosystems

ARCHAEOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY Archaeologists also study the cultures of historical and living people Historical archaeology combines archaeological data with textual data to reconstruct historically known groups Sunken ships off the Florida coast Rathje’s “garbology” shows that what people report may contrast with their real behavior

BIOLOGICAL, OR PHYSICAL, ANTHROPOLOGY The study of human biological variation in time and space

BIOLOGICAL, OR PHYSICAL, ANTHROPOLOGY Biological anthropology unites five special interests: Paleoanthropology (study of human evolution through fossil record) Human genetics Human growth and development Human biological plasticity (body’s ability to change as it copes with stresses) Primatology - Biology, evolution, behavior, and social life of monkeys, apes, and other nonhuman primates Physical anthropology is multidisciplinary Investigates the influence of environment on the body as it grows (environmental factors include nutrition, altitude, temperature, and disease)

LINGUISTIC ANTHROPOLOGY Study of language in its social and cultural context across space and time Historical linguists reconstruct ancient languages and study linguistic variation through time Sociolinguistics: investigates relationships between social and linguistic variation Linguistic anthropologists have studied linguistic differences to examine the relationship of language structure and thought patterns in different cultures

ANTHROPOLOGY AND OTHER ACADEMIC FIELDS Anthropology is a science: study that seeks reliable explanations with reference to the material and physical world Systematic field of study that uses experiments, observations, and deduction to produce explanations of cultural and biological phenomena the science of similarities and differences (devoted to discovering, describing, understanding, appreciating, and explaining similarities and differences in time and space among humans and out ancestors Holistic - unique blend of biological, social, cultural, linguistic, historical, and contemporary perspectives Also linked to humanities (compares languages, texts, philosophies, arts, music performances…) Can be argued that it is the most humanistic of all academic fields because of its fundamental respect for human diversity.

CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY AND SOCIOLOGY Cultural anthropology and sociology share an interest in social relations, organization, and behavior Initially, sociologists focused on industrial West, anthropologists on nonindustrial societies Different methods of data collection and analysis emerged Cultural anthropologists use in-depth and qualitative methods such as participant observation Sociologists tend to use surveys and other quantitative measures (sampling and statistical techniques) In many areas and on many topics, anthropology and sociology are converging

ANTHROPOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY Psychological anthropology studies cross-cultural variations in psychological traits Certain traits are universal, others are found in some but not all societies, while some are only found in one or very few cultures Culturally Specific Syndrome – abnormal behavior confined to one or a few related groups (i.e. susto in Latin America) (anorexia was once confined to Western industrialized societies but has spread internationally) American Journal of Psychiatry

APPLIED ANTHROPOLOGY Application of anthropological data, perspectives, theory, and methods to identify, assess, and solve contemporary social problems Applied medical anthropologists Applied Archaeologists Applied anthropologists

APPLIED ANTHROPOLOGY Applied Medical Anthropology Looks at sociocultural and biological contexts and implications of disease and illness Various groups recognize different illnesses, symptoms, and causes and have developed different health care systems and treatments. Applied Archaeology Includes cultural resource management, contract archaeology, public educational programs, and historic preservation Cultural resource management (CRM): decide what needs saving, and preserve significant information about the past when sites cannot be saved Applied Anthropology Works in public health, family planning, business, market research, economic development, and activism)

Fieldwork

Fieldwork