Philosophy of Language

Course Particulars

Instructor Dr. Michael Johnson You can call me Michael If you must, Dr. Johnson

About Me From San Antonio, TX, U.S.A. Undergraduate degree (B.A. philosophy): University of Texas- Austin (2003). Graduate degree (Ph.D. philosophy): Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey (2011). Moved to Hong Kong August 2011.

Tower of Saviors: IGN: Mj UID: 67599983 OpenRice UN: mjhk Find Me Tower of Saviors: IGN: Mj UID: 67599983 OpenRice UN: mjhk

Central Podium Levels (CPD) Room 3.01 Location Central Podium Levels (CPD) Room 3.01

Meeting Times Tuesdays 10:30 AM – 12:20 PM

Course Website michaeljohnsonphilosophy.com > PHIL 2610 Philosophy of Language 2016

Instructor Email michael.dracula.johnson@gmail.com

Academic Integrity All students are expected to read and understand HKU’s policy on plagiarism: “What Is Plagiarism?” http://www.rss.hku.hk/plagiarism /page2s.htm

Animal Communication

Vervet Monkeys

High-pitched “chutters” Vervet Signaling Predator Call Type Avoidance Behavior Leopard Short tonal calls Climb tree Eagle Low-pitched “grunt” Hide in bushes Python High-pitched “chutters” Stand up, look down

Honeybee Social insects Males 100% related to each other, (non-queen) females 75% Live in colonial nests made of wax Produce and store honey, made from plant nectar

The Waggle Dance

Human Language

Human Languages What’s special about human communication, as opposed to animal communication?

Unique Features Discreteness Modality Independence Productivity Displacement

Discreteness

Double Articulation Morphemes are made out of phonemes, sounds that make a difference to meaning (e.g. ‘cat’ vs. ‘bat’). Words are made out of morphemes, the smallest units that have a meaning (e.g. ‘dog’ + PLURAL = ‘dogs’). Sentences are made out of words.

Modality Independence Modality: representational format– e.g. sounds, butt waggles, etc. Multi-modal communication: using multiple modalities to communicate, e.g. primate gesture-calls Modality-independent communication: all the same messages can be sent regardless of the modality

Modality Independence

Productivity Language is a system that “makes infinite use of finite means.” --Wilhelm von Humboldt

The president of the United States Recursion: Examples The president of the United States noun phrase

The president of the United States Recursion: Examples The president of the United States Inside a bigger noun phrase

Michael believes that snow is white. Recursion: Examples Michael believes that snow is white. sentence

Michael believes that snow is white. Recursion: Examples Michael believes that snow is white. inside a bigger sentence

Recursion The recursive structure of language means that even though there are finitely many words, there are infinitely many grammatically correct sentences, with infinitely many distinct meanings.

Recursion: The House that Jack Built https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7sDSYVfnj_E

Syntax Syntax is the set of rules that govern how words are put together to form larger expressions, like phrases and sentences. Syntax is recursive when a phrase can be made out of other phrases like it.

X-Bar Theory

X-Bar Theory

Displacement Animals can communicate messages about things and events in their current environment, but not: Things that are not around right now Events in the past Events in the future Things that don’t exist

Displacement

Semantics Linguistic expressions– simple and complex ones– have meanings. They represent objects and events in the world.

What Are Meanings? If you can speak of things that don’t exist (yet or even ever), what are the things that you are speaking of?

Meinong’s Theory For example, Alexius Meinong (1853-1920) thought that everything you could think of had to exist (else how could you think of it?). He divided the world then into the existent (everything) and the subsistent (the things we normally think exist).

Onomatopoeia

The Arbitrariness of Language Most words aren’t onomatopoetic. In different languages, words for the same things can themselves be radically different.

How Does Language Acquire Meaning?

Meaning is conventional Meaning is conventional. But it’s not as though everyone went to a big meeting where we all agreed what words were to mean.

Coordination Problems Coordination problems are problems where there are multiple good solutions and we have to coordinate our actions to achieve one of them. It doesn’t matter which solution we aim for, it just matters that everyone aims for the same solution.

Example: Which Side to Drive On

Example: Money Throughout history, people have used different things as money: gold, silver, sea shells, salt (whence ‘salary’), goats, cigarettes (in prison), coins and paper currency. It doesn’t matter to me what I accept in exchange for my goods and labor as long as it’s what everyone else accepts (as long as I can spend it).

Language and Convention Many aspects of language are also conventional: The meaning of each word. Some facts about the grammar. How the words get pronounced.

Convention It is a convention for a group to follow a rule in a certain situation, if whenever they are in that situation: Everyone follows the rule. Everyone expects everyone else to follow the rule. The situation is a coordination problem. Everyone following the rule is a solution to the coordination problem. The reason why they follow the rule is (3) and (4).

Accepting HKD is Conventional It is a convention for Hong Kongers to follow the rule “accept HKD” in exchange for goods and services, because: Everyone gets paid in HKD and makes purchases with HKD. Everyone expects everyone else to accept payment and make purchases with HKD. Which currency to accept is a coordination problem. Everyone accepting HKD is an equilibrium point in that problem. The reason why we follow the rule is (3) and (4).

What the Word Means Person 2 Person 1 “dog” Solution Failure

Word Order Person 2 Person 1 SOV SVO Solution Failure

What Word We Use Person 2 Person 1 “Dog” “Chien” Solution Failure

Not Everything Conventional “Certainly not every feature of a language is conventional. No humanly possible language relies on ultrasonic whistles, so it is not by convention that Welshmen do not… but so long as even two languages are humanly possible, it must be by convention that a population chooses to use one or the other.” – David Lewis

Infinity, Again We know that there are infinitely many grammatical sentences. (Or at least a very, very large amount.) But those sentences (collectively) also have an infinite number of distinct meanings. (Or at least a very, very large amount.) How can we work out the meanings of sentences we’ve never heard before, whose meanings we have never been taught?

Compositionality Here’s the main outline of the solution: 1. We learn the meanings of simple expressions (words). 2. The meanings of complex expressions (phrases and sentences) are determined by the meanings of the words in them and the syntax of the sentence.

Compositional Semantics

Benefits of Language Cooperative action: coordination, conspicuousness Tool for thought?