CHAPTER 3 The British Atlantic World 1660–1750 America’s History CHAPTER 3 The British Atlantic World 1660–1750

1. Who are the individuals depicted on this tobacco label, dating from around 1700? (Answer: In the foreground are three Virginia tobacco planters. In the background are three African slaves, working the tobacco field.) 2. What does this image suggest about the lives of Virginia’s tobacco planters at the beginning of the eighteenth century? (Answer: Their fancy clothes, wigs, and shoes suggest that these three planters are wealthy. They appear to be relaxing in the shade and enjoying tobacco from their fields, suggesting that they reap the benefits of tobacco cultivation without having to do the work themselves. This notion is confirmed by the fact that African slaves are seen performing the labor of tobacco cultivation in the background.) 3. What does this label tell us about the economic relationship that existed between Virginia and England in 1700? (Answer: The label, which was affixed to tobacco imported to London, clearly states that its origin was “London’s Virginia.” The label demonstrates that Virginia was a British economic satellite: that its colonists produced the tobacco sold in England and consumed English products such as wigs, cloth, buttons, buckles, etc.)

Colonies to Empire, 1660 – 1713 The Restoration Colonies and Imperial Expansion: Following restoration of the monarchy in 1660 under Charles II, England sought greater control over its colonies. Proprietorship – royal grant of land given to an individual by the English Crown; Could rule as wished, as long as it was within English laws The Carolinas: S. Carolina established a strict racial hierarchy Focused on growing rice William Penn and Pennsylvania: Believed in an “inner light,” Pacifists, no paid clergy Paid Native Americans for their land “Holy experiment” – toleration of many religious groups All could attain salvation, did not favor predestination Women had many rights in church – could become preachers, speak publicly

From Mercantilism to Imperial Dominion: The Navigation Acts: English laws requiring all goods to be carried on English or colonial ships-to cut French and Dutch out of trade. Colonists could only export sugar and tobacco to England & import through England – led to SMUGGLING! The Dominion of New England - combined Massachusetts with the rest of New England, and later New Jersey and New York- to strengthen control for James II. Assemblies were eliminated and a new governor was appointed – Sir Edmund Andros who was very unpopular The Dominion was met with resistance and ended with “The Glorious Revolution” in England

Colonies to Empire, 1660 - 1713 The Glorious Revolution in England and America James II is overthrown, William and Mary installed as joint rulers Supported by John Locke Declaration of Rights established a constitutional monarchy that limited the power of the monarchy Major step toward democracy in England and colonies.

Imperial Wars and Native Peoples Tribalization: Native Americans were forced to demands of Europeans Iroquois Indians used the French and English against each other Iroquois sought to remain neutral in conflicts between the two powers

The Imperial Slave Economy The South Atlantic System: Trade between the Caribbean, Brazil, and Africa England and the West Indies: Barbados became a major sugar producer using slave labor Fear was a significant force in slave labor Sugar was the most profitable crop The Impact on Britain: England gained tremendous wealth through the South Atlantic System and Navigation Acts Africa, Africans, and the Slave Trade: Africans and the Slave Trade: West Africa became a major player in the slave trade 2/3 of slaves were men Many African men practiced polygamy The Middle Passage and Beyond: Middle Passage – Slave voyage from Africa to the Americas Horrific conditions Many died on the ship Slaves regularly worked 10 hour days in brutal heat Suffered mental and physical abuse, as well as sexual exploitation

Middle Passage Scene from "Amistad" 1. Who are the subjects of this painting? To what do the images refer? (Answer: The white man in each of the two images represents a southern planter and slave owner. The black woman is a slave, as is the black man. The images refer to slave owners’ sexual abuse of black women and their frequent physical abuse of their African slaves.) 2. What do we know about the artist? Why might he or she have elected to remain anonymous? (Answer: The artist did not sign the painting and remains anonymous. He or she was drawing attention to subjects that were not freely discussed—especially the sexual abuse of black women by white men—and the artist might have chosen to remain anonymous for that reason.) 3. What was the artist’s purpose in creating this image with this title? (The artist created the image to call attention to the ways slave owners mistreated their slaves, and also to critique and perhaps ridicule those practices. By titling the painting Virginian Luxuries, the artist made the location of the activity clear and also called attention to the inhumanity and hypocrisy of the slave system in which whites’ luxuries were essentially extracted from black men and women.) Middle Passage Scene from "Amistad"

1. What was the Middle Passage that is depicted in these two images 1. What was the Middle Passage that is depicted in these two images? (Answer: The Middle Passage was the journey African slaves endured on the ships that brought them from Africa to the New World. The ships were notoriously overcrowded and filthy, and the mortality rate among Africans on the journey was quite high). 2. How does the image on the right differ from the one on the left? Why might the artist have painted the scene in this way? (Answer: The image on the right is painted as if the artist were there in the ship’s hold, whereas the other is a cutaway aerial view. The conditions are far from comfortable, but the African passengers do not look miserable, sick, or malnourished. The artist, a ship’s officer, might have been seeking to minimize the brutality of the trip.) 3. What is the source of the image on the left? Do you think it was intended to convey a particular message, or not? (Answer: The image on the left was the actual plan for a Liverpool slave ship designed to hold 482 Africans packed in very tightly. It was created to be informational—to show how shippers could utilize the space to transport as many Africans as possible. The image was printed by England’s Abolitionist Society to show the inhumanity of the slave trade and slavery itself. Though it does not show sickness, filth, or starvation, it clearly conveys the difficult conditions the African passengers endured.)

The Imperial Slave Economy Slavery in the Chesapeake and South Carolina: 1740, slaves made up 40% of the population in the Chesapeake What caused this increase after 1676? Slaves were defined by race; slave owners could not be charged with a crime if they killed their slaves Slavery was more arduous in the Caribbean raising sugar Diseases were more frequent in the West Indies South Carolina raised mostly rice, similar conditions to sugar plantations

The Imperial Slave Economy Cont. An African American Community Emerges: Plantation owners purposely bought slaves from different areas of Africa that did not speak the same language Building Community: Africans developed a unique blend of both African and American cultures Religion, music, etc. Resistance and Accommodation: Slave resistance mostly took the form of working slowly, faking illness, breaking tools, and running away

The Imperial Slave Economy Cont. The Stono Rebellion (1739): Many slaves revolted and killed whites and tried to flee to Spanish Florida After this and other Rebellions, imports were less slave laws became more strict The Rise of the Southern Gentry (high social class): Wealthy plantation owners had tremendous power-modeled after English aristocracy Hoped to prevent another Bacon’s Rebellion by lowering taxes and encouraging small farmers to own slaves Some small farmers were given the right to vote

The Northern Maritime Economy Trade increased contact and reliance between New England and West Indies The Urban Economy: Molasses from the West Indies was turned into rum in New England The New England fishing industry sold fish to Europe A major shipbuilding industry emerged in New England – 1/3 of British fleet by 1770s Urban Society: Merchant elites controlled a sizeable portion of trade in New England Artisans made up 50% of society Indentured servants and slaves worked on docks Children were often forced to work to help provide for their families

The New Politics of Empire, 1713 - 1750 The Rise of Colonial Assemblies: Only white, property-owning males could vote Many assemblies limited the power of the royally appointed governor Elite families dominated politics; many members of one family would serve on legislatures Crowds would often protest colonial acts deemed unpopular Salutary Neglect: Coined by philosopher Edmund Burke Essentially, England left the colonies alone, as long as they were profitable Ends in 1763 with the end of the 7 Years War (Britain needed $ to pay for its debt)

The New Politics of Empire, 1713 - 1750 Protecting the Mercantile System: Georgia was established as a “buffer” colony between South Carolina and the Spanish in Florida War of Jenkin’s Ear – fought over land disputes between the Spanish and British Mercantilism and the American Colonies: American colonists began to control more and more of the Atlantic trade – large increase in wealth for colonies Molasses Act (1733) – placed a high tariff on French molasses Although Britain discouraged trade with other countries, colonists routinely smuggled goods Currency Act (1751) – first of two currency acts Prohibited the colonies from issuing paper money

Quick Recap Pennsylvania and the “Holy Experiment” Navigation Acts Transatlantic trade increased demand for sugar and slaves Comparing slavery in the Chesapeake with South Carolina and West Indies Stono Rebellion led to more harsh slave laws Salutary Neglect Most conflict between countries was over LAND! Colonists avoided British acts (Navigation) by smuggling

I. Colonies to Empire, 1660–1713 A. The Restoration Colonies and Imperial Expansion 1. The Carolinas 2. William Penn and Pennsylvania I. Colonies to Empire, 1660–1713 A. The Restoration Colonies and Imperial Expansion (Charles II (r. 1660–1685): following restoration of the monarchy in 1660, England sought greater control over its colonies.) 1. The Carolinas – Proprietorships; land in this region owned by aristocrats; these men could rule as they wished within English law; Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina (1669) called for a manorial system with serfs and nobles not unlike traditional European society; first North Carolina settlers were poor families and runaway servants from Virginia and English Quakers; in South Carolina, white settlers arrived from Barbados and worked to create a hierarchical society with enslaved African and Indian workers. 2. William Penn and Pennsylvania – 15,000+ settlers in 17th century; good relations with native peoples gave rise to prosperity; colony bestowed to Penn as payment for debt; envisioned a refuge for his fellow Quakers (persecuted in England for tax and military resistance); doctrine was based on an “inner light” of grace or understanding in men and women; gender equality; Penn’s Frame of Government (1681) linked the teachings of Quakerism to the politics of the colony: no state church, political equality for all who owned property; ethnically diverse as a result of Penn’s encouragement of religious tolerance.

I. Colonies to Empire, 1660–1713 B. From Mercantilism to Imperial Dominion 1. The Navigation Acts 2. The Dominion of New England I. Colonies to Empire, 1660–1713 B. From Mercantilism to Imperial Dominion 1. The Navigation Acts – The Navigation Act of 1651 excluded Dutch and French vessels by declaring ships that carried material goods from the colonies must be owned by English or colonists; additional acts in 1660 and 1663 required that sugar and tobacco be exported only to England; imports to the colonies could only come through England. Policies were backed by the English navy who forcibly drove the Dutch out of the Atlantic; colonists had been ignoring mercantilist laws and maintaining trade relations with the Dutch; English cracked down on colonies by denying the Massachusetts Bay claim to New Hampshire; in 1684, the Massachusetts Bay charter was annulled as punishment. 2. The Dominion of New England – King James II was an aggressive and inflexible ruler; in 1686, the charters of Connecticut and Rhode Island were revoked and merged with Massachusetts Bay and Plymouth to form the Dominion of New England; New Jersey and New York were added in 1688. James placed in charge of New England a former military officer named Andros who banned town meetings from New England and advocated public worship in the Church of England, offending the Puritans; Andros also invalidated all land titles granted by the original Massachusetts Bay charter. He offered to provide new deeds, but only if the colonists would pay an annual fee. 24

I. Colonies to Empire, 1660–1713 C. The Glorious Revolution in England and America 1. In England 2. Rebellions in America I. Colonies to Empire, 1660–1713 C. The Glorious Revolution in England and America 1. In England – In 1688, when James’s Spanish Catholic wife gave birth to a son, Protestant bishops and parliamentary leaders in the Whig Party, fearing a return to Catholicism in England, waged a nearly bloodless coup. King James II was overthrown in an event dubbed the Glorious Revolution; James’s Protestant daughter Mary Stuart, was enthroned with her husband William; Whig politicians forced King William and Queen Mary to accept a Declaration of Rights, creating a constitutional monarchy with a powerful House of Commons and a weak monarchy. 2. Rebellions in America – Protestant colonists in Massachusetts, Maryland, and New York rebelled; Puritan leaders accused Andros of Catholic sympathy and shipped him back to England. William and Mary broke up the Dominion of New England and created a new royal colony with Maine and Plymouth. The new charter gave the vote to all male property owners regardless of faith; rebellions occurred in Maryland and New York. The Glorious Revolution began a non-authoritarian era to the colonies and allowed restoration of self-government in Massachusetts and New York.

II. Imperial Wars and Native Peoples A. Tribalization 1. Decline and reorganization 2. Political strategies II. Imperial Wars and Native Peoples A. Tribalization 1. Decline and reorganization – As imperial conflicts came to North America, Native Americans adapted to the demands imposed upon them by European settlers. Some new tribes, like the Catawbas, came together from remnants of formerly large groups. Other nations, like the Iroquois, declined in numbers but sustained themselves by adopting war captives; fragmented communities came together into new coherent “tribes” (e.g., the “Creek” Indians) to deal more effectively with their European neighbors. 2. Political strategies – Imperial wars threatened Native Americans but also gave them newfound leverage. The Iroquois devised a new strategy for playing French and English interest off of one another; in 1701, they made alliances with both empires, declaring their intention to remain neutral. The Covenant Chain soon became a model for relations between the British Empire and Native American peoples in general. 29

II. Imperial Wars and Native Peoples B. Indian Goals 1. Creeks 2. Mohawks and Abenakis III. Imperial Wars and Native Peoples B. Indian Goals 1. Creeks – Sought to become the dominant tribe in the Southeast; destroyed Franciscan missions in Florida, attacked Spanish settlement at Pensacola, and captured a thousand Apalachees, whom they sold to South Carolina slave traders for sale in the West Indies. In 1715, when English settlers demanded payment for trade debts, the Creeks and Yamasees revolted, killing 400 colonists before being overwhelmed by the Carolinians and their new Indian allies, the Cherokees. 2. Mohawks and Abenakis – Received French aid and turned against Puritan enemies. In 1704, they attacked English settlements in Maine; killed 48 and captured 112 residents of Deerfield, Massachusetts. In 1710, New England militia joined with British naval forces to seize Port Royal in French Acadia but failed miserably in attack against the French stronghold at Quebec.

III. The Imperial Slave Economy A. The South Atlantic System 1. England and the West Indies 2. The Impact on Britain III. The Imperial Slave Economy A. The South Atlantic System (System centered in Brazil and West Indies with sugar as primary product; Europeans provided tools and equipment; slave labor made the plantations productive and profitable.) 1. England and the West Indies – English began plantation economies in its West Indian colonies later than other nations; initially, early settlers had small-scale farms with indentured servants. After 1650, production of sugar changed Barbados and the other islands into slave-based plantation societies; wealthy men owned large sugar plantations with scores of slaves. Sugar was the most profitable crop in Europe or the Americas. 2. The Impact on Britain – Huge profits flowed into Britain from the slave trade. Guns, iron, rum, and cloth were traded for slaves who produced far more profit than they had cost; slaves sold in the West Indies for three to five times what they cost in Africa; the sugar production/slave trade commerce stimulated all aspects of British economy, including the Royal Navy.

III. The Imperial Slave Economy B. Africa, Africans, and the Slave Trade 1. Africans and the Slave Trade 2. The Middle Passage and Beyond III. The Imperial Slave Economy B. Africa, Africans, and the Slave Trade 1. Africans and the Slave Trade – Warfare and slavery had historic roots in Africa; European trade made enslaving people a way of life. Conquering regions and then selling people as slaves were highly profitable for kings. Yet participation in the transatlantic slave trade remained a choice, not a necessity. Hundreds of thousands of young Africans died, and millions more endured a brutal life of slavery in the Americas; two-thirds of those enslaved were men. Marriage practices changed in western Africa as a result of the scarcity of men. 2. The Middle Passage and Beyond – Torn from their villages, they were marched in chains to coastal ports, then packed in hideously overcrowded ships; shackled; subjected to starvation, dehydration, feces, urine, vomit; roughly 1 in 10 voyages had a violent slave rebellion; more than one million died of disease or illness en route to the Americas; surviving meant 10-hour workdays; poor living conditions, insufficient food, and sexual abuse for women. 32

III. The Imperial Slave Economy C. Slavery in the Chesapeake and South Carolina 1. Chesapeake 2. South Carolina III. The Imperial Slave Economy C. Slavery in the Chesapeake and South Carolina 1. Chesapeake – Elite planters-politicians led a “tobacco revolution”; took advantage of slave trade to bring Africans into region after Bacon’s Rebellion. Slavery was now defined in racial terms; Virginia prohibited sexual relations between English and Africans; better living and working conditions than in West Indies; tobacco profits were lower in Chesapeake than sugar in the West Indies. Many tobacco planters encouraged slaves to have children to increase workforce; by mid-eighteenth century, more than three-quarters of the enslaved workers in the Chesapeake were American-born. 2. South Carolina – Slaves labored under much harsher work conditions than Chesapeake; colony grew slowly; production and export of rice helped increase profits; work in swamp land was dangerous and exhausting; mosquito-borne illnesses killed large numbers of slaves.

III. The Imperial Slave Economy D. An African American Community Emerges 1. Building Community 2. Resistance and Accommodation 3. The Stono Rebellion III. The Imperial Slave Economy D. An African American Community Emerges 1. Building Community – Planters desired ethnically diverse Africans as a deterrent to slave revolts; numerous African languages were spoken in early years of slavery; some planters had preferences, believing that slaves from certain areas of Africa were harder workers. Friendship and marriages across ethnic lines blurred the clan or family affiliations that Africans brought; common language helped grow sense of community among slaves (Gullah or English or French); values (Muslim and other religious beliefs) continued while cultural practices such as ritual scarring (“country markings”) began to disappear. 2. Resistance and Accommodation – Slaves were denied education, accumulation of material possessions, and the right to associate with others; punishments included whipping and other forms of physical torture (removal of toes); white violence was lower in the northern colonies where there were fewer slaves; poor whites were hired to patrol southern colonies at night for runaway slaves. Slaves resisted in various ways: running away, bartering for extra food and privileges, working slowly, or stealing. Outright rebellion was very rare. 3. The Stono Rebellion – In 1739, South Carolina saw the largest slave uprising in the mainland colonies. The Catholic governor of Spanish Florida instigated the revolt by promising freedom to runaway slaves; groups began fleeing to Florida. When war broke out between England and Spain, 75 Africans led a revolt near the Stono River. A well-armed, mounted force of South Carolina militia quelled the Stono rebels by killing 44 slaves to suppress the rebellion. Frightened South Carolinians cut slave imports and tightened plantation discipline.

III. The Imperial Slave Economy E. The Rise of the Southern Gentry 1. William Byrd II 2. White identity and equality III. The Imperial Slave Economy E. The Rise of the Southern Gentry 1. William Byrd II (1674–1744) – Son of a successful planter-merchant in Virginia; educated in England; rejected by Englishmen and women as a “colonial”; accumulated great wealth and became a success in America not England. His experience mirrored many southern planter-merchants, trapped by their inferior colonial status, who used their wealth to rule over white yeomen and tenant farmers and relied on violence to exploit enslaved blacks. 2. White Identity and Equality – After Bacon’s Rebellion, the elite wanted to quell any possible uprising by poor whites; lowered taxes in Virginia; cultivated gentility—a refined but elaborate lifestyle. Men followed the traditional notions of English life but in America; modeled themselves on the behavior of the English aristocracy but aimed for success in the colonies; parents had daughters tutored to make them more desirable as wives; women deferred to their husbands on all matters; social networks were important.

IV. The Northern Maritime Economy A. The Urban Economy 1. American merchants 2. American cities 3. American shippers and teamsters The Northern Maritime Economy A. The Urban Economy 1. American merchants – West Indian trade created American merchant fortunes and urban industries among sugar producers, distillers, fishermen, and export businesses. 2. American cities – Transatlantic commerce spurred the growth of port cities; by 1750, major cities included Newport and Charleston with 10,000 people each; Boston had 15,000 residents; and New York had nearly 18,000. The largest port was Philadelphia, whose population reached 30,000 by 1776. 3. American shippers and teamsters – American shippers traversed Atlantic but also the Hudson and Delaware rivers; teamsters transported wheat, corn and flour to urban markets; transportation spurred new businesses such as taverns, horse stables, and barrel-making shops. .

IV. The Northern Maritime Economy B. Urban Society 1. Upper classes 2. Middle ranks 3. Lower classes IV. The Northern Maritime Economy B. Urban Society 1. Upper classes – Wealthy merchants dominated American cities; imitated British upper classes through architecture, consumption, and genteel culture. 2. Middle ranks – Artisans and shopkeepers made up nearly half the population. Innkeepers, butchers, seamstresses, shoemakers, weavers, bakers, carpenters, masons and other skilled workers lived in modest comfort, but most artisans were not well-to-do. 3. Lower classes – Laboring men and women made up 30 percent of urban population; they were dockworkers and unskilled wageworkers, washerwomen, wool-spinners, servants, or prostitutes. 38

V. The New Politics of Empire, 1713–1750 A. The Rise of Colonial Assemblies B. Salutary Neglect V. The New Politics of Empire, 1713–1750 A. The Rise of Colonial Assemblies 1. Assemblies – Following the Glorious Revolution, assemblies in the colonies sought to limit the power of the crown; colonial elite led assemblies; men of wealth could be elected, but all men who owned property could vote. Purposeful crowd actions were an important part of colonial society; mobs expressed public discontent effectively. B. Salutary Neglect 1. Salutary Neglect – Bureaucrats in England relaxed control over colonies when they were happy with the relationship (pleased by financial benefits); colonists took advantage of this relationship by increasing the power of their representative assemblies.

V. The New Politics of Empire, 1713–1750 C. Protecting the Mercantile System 1. Commercial Aggression 2. War of Jenkins’s Ear V. The New Politics of Empire, 1713–1750 C. Protecting the Mercantile System 1. Commercial Aggression – Britain’s efforts to develop Georgia to protect the valuable rice-growing colony of South Carolina outraged Spain, which stepped up their seizure of illegal traders, in the process mutilating an English sea captain, Robert Jenkins. 2. War of Jenkins’s Ear – Eighteenth-century imperial competition led to British involvement in war with Spain (War of Jenkins’s Ear, 1739–1741) and France (War of the Austrian Succession, 1740–1748); limited fighting in North America; French regained Louisbourg, the fort guarding the entrance to the St. Lawrence River.

V. The New Politics of Empire, 1713–1750 D. Mercantilism and the American Colonies 1. The Politics of Mercantilism V. The New Politics of Empire, 1713–1750 D. Mercantilism and the American Colonies 1. The Politics of Mercantilism – Britain allowed Americans to own ships and transport goods; colonists made significant gains in control of exports during 18th century; increased trade relationship with the French sugar islands. Lack of currency in colonies further complicated financial relationships; American merchants used bills of exchange and the gold and silver coins earned in the West Indian trade until ten colonial assemblies created public “land banks” to lend paper money to farmers (who pledged their farms as collateral). In 1751, Parliament passed the Currency Act, which barred New Englanders from establishing new land banks and prohibited the use of publicly issued paper money to pay for private debts; the English attempted to regain control of colonial economic pursuits. In the late 1740s, British officials vowed to reassert their power in America—an initiative that proved to have disastrous results.