What general political trends were evident in the nations of western Europe in the last decade of the 19th century, and how did these trends differ from the policies pursued in Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia? The National State

BRITAIN Reform Act of 1867: Suffrage Extended William Gladstone and Reform Act of 1884 Redistribution Act of 1885: Reorganized the election boroughs Salaries paid to House of Commons 1911: more people could run for office Irish Problem: Irish agitate for home rule

FRANCE Universal male suffrage in 1871 elected monarchists Radical republicans formed an independent government (the Commune) Commune crushed by government troops Establishment of the Third Republic 1875 Position of the Third Republic precarious because monarchists, Catholic clergy, and professional army officers were in opposition Boulanger crisis strengthens republic

SPAIN 1875 Constitution establishes parliamentary government Reform not easily accomplished because the Catholic Church, the large landowners, and the army remained tied to a conservative social order

ITALY Had pretensions of great power status Internal weakness: sectional differences Government unable to deal with problems because of corruption and changing government coalitions

GERMANY Real political democracy fails to develop because of army and Bismarck Army officers come from Junker class or upper middle class Bismarck’s conservatism: attacks Catholic Church (Kulturkampf) and persecutes socialists

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY Austrian constitution of 1867 establishes parliamentary system Emperor Francis Joseph largely ignores ministerial responsibility and rules by decree when parliament is not in session Nationalities problem of minorities worsens Hungary attempts Magyarization

RUSSIA Alexander III, 1881-1894: overturns reform and returns to repressive measures Nicholas II, 1894-1917: believed in absolute rule