Delft University of Technology The Raw Materials Conference 2017: “NO ENERGY TRANSITION WITHOUT RAW MATERIALS” 23 June, The Hague Materials for batteries Erik Kelder Delft University of Technology Faculty of Applied Sciences Storage of Electrochemical Energy

Standard battery targets High energy density – light and small High power performance – many Watts Cheap – may costs nothing Safe – may not explode Long lifetime (calendar as well as cycle life) Reliable Recycleable

Which battery for what purpose Capacity Applications Primary(P)/Secondary(S) + Chemistry Miniatures 0.10 – 2 Wh watches, calculators, medical implants P, Thyonyl and other exotics Portables/ consumables 2 – 100 Wh cellulars, toys (hover boards), laptops S, NiCad, NiMH, Li-ion; P, Alkaline Starting Lighting Ignition 100 – 600 Wh Cars, trucks, etc. S, Lead acid Traction 20 – 630 kWh EVs, HEVs, Plug-ins, fork lift trucks S, NiMH, Li-ion Li-S, Li-air, Mg-systems Stationaries 250 Wh – 5MWh emergency power, local energy storage, UPS S, Lead acid (Li-ion) Li-S, Li-air, Na+Mg-systems Load levelling 5 – 100 MWh peak shaving, load levelling S, Lead acid, Li-ion,

Prospects (Example: EV driving range)

Required materials Transition metals Others Cobalt Lithium Manganese Sodium Iron Aluminium Chromium Zink Vanadium Magnesium Copper Sulfur Nickel Phosphorus Titanium Fluor   Plastics/polymers

Materials issues (some examples) Material Scarcity Sustainable Food Recycling mining competition LiCoO2 Co, Li ? Co X + LiFePO4 Li ? X P - Li-S Li ? S ? X ? Na-systems X X X - Mg-systems X X X - Salar de Uyuni - 10000 km2 30-50% world Li reserves 3700 m over sea level

Materials issues (some examples) Recycling Food competition P-demands associated with projected trends in U.S. renewable transportation biofuels are very significant, and are indirect and unintentional impacts on food prices from this level of competition with other agricultural P-uses can be expected if major efforts are not made to recycle the P that is contained in the processed plant biomass

Can we close the ring, rather than the gap Recycling Governments NL, EU, World Energy Costs Industries Knowledge institutes Sustainable mining K