Research & Writing in CJ Chapter 6: Quantitative Research

Quantitative Research “the numerical representation and manipulation of observations for the purpose of describing and explaining the phenomena that those observations represent” (hopefully) a more objective analysis based upon the numerical findings produced from observations

Quantitative Research “quantitative research refers to counting and measuring items associated with the phenomena in question whereas qualitative research focuses on ‘the meanings, concepts, definitions, characteristics, metaphors, symbols, and description of things” (chapter 5)

Quantitative Research Many issues not suitable for numerical assignment May be inaccurate and misleading Examples?

Empirical Observation Empiricism is use of sensations and experiences (observations) to arrive at conclusions about the world we live in Scientific method with its focus on causation rather than casual observation is what makes empiricism important

Causality In applying empirical observation to CJ research, we focus upon causal relationships What behaviors or events leads to other behaviors or events?

Idiographic and Nomothetic Causes Examine numerous explanations for why an event occurred  idiographic explanation may be qualitative or quantitative Focus upon relatively few observations in order to provide a partial explanation for an event  nomothetic explanation Based upon probabilities

Criteria for Causality Independent variable must occur before dependent variable Relationship b/w independent and dependent variable must be observed The apparent relationship is not explained by a third variable

Necessary and Sufficient Criteria Must meet the previous criteria but do not have to demonstrate a perfect correlation If condition/event must occur in order for another event to take place  necessary cause When the presence of a condition will ordinarily cause the effect to occur  sufficient cause

False Precision When quantifying data, it is imperative the numerical assignments are valid Arbitrarily assigning numbers to variables w/o a logical reason – the numbers have no true meaning False precision

Quantitative Measurement “the assignment of numerical value or categorical labels to phenomena for the expressed purpose of quantifiable identification or analysis” Four levels of measurement: Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio

Nominal Level Data Simplest level of measurement Measurement is categorical where each is mutually exclusive Neither a quantitative nor statistical value assigned except for the expressed need to describe the results or to code it for data analyses

Ordinal Level Data Moves beyond merely categorical by assigning a rank or placement of order to variables Numbers are assigned for ranking purposes but not meant to explain the responses A demonstration of where the respondent believes the item to fall Example: Murder = 9, Robbery = 5, Theft = 1 We cannot explain what the differences truly represent

Interval Level Data Provides far better opportunity for explanation than data collected at the nominal and ordinal levels There is an expected equality in the distance between choices on a continuum No set zero or starting point Usefulness may be limited

Ratio Level Data Most quantifiable level Absolute starting point of zero and difference between each point are equal and can be explained Ratio level can be collapsed into nominal or ordinal measure

Types of Quantitative Research: Survey Research Used when researchers are interested in experiences, attitudes, perceptions, etc. Three primary methods Personal interviews Mail questionnaire Telephone survey

Personal Interviews Surveys that are administered face-to-face May be qualitative (chapter 5) Interviews in which the researcher reads from a previously developed questionnaire to which responses are numerically assigned are qualitative Also permits probing on open-ended questions and observations about the respondent

Mail Questionnaires Surveys that are mailed to respondents Cheaper and safer to administer Allows surveying a large number quickly

Telephone Surveys Quick and easy May be more efficient by utilizing random digit dialing to sample Advantage of inputting data as questions answered Disadvantage: participation

Pros of Survey Research Probability sample and standardized questionnaire allow for descriptive assertions Larger samples possible Flexibility in developing operational definitions based on actual observations Strength of data

Cons of Survey Research Are questions appropriate for all respondents Seldom allows for development of the feel for the context in which respondents are thinking or acting Inflexible Subject to artificiality

Field Research May be qualitative or quantitative Example

Unobtrusive Research Does not require researcher to be directly involved with subjects of study Data either already gathered or available in a format that does not require such interaction

Analysis of Existing Data Efficient way to conduct criminological research Researcher obtains existing data and reanalyzes it Reevaluation of data from prior study using a new method of analysis Could be use of governmental data in a new research analysis

Quantified Historical Research Involves review of prior research, documents, or social artifacts to gain insights about an event or era in history Majority is qualitative but can be quantitative

Quantified Content Analysis Study of social artifacts to gain insights about an event or phenomenon Quantitative content analysis emphasizes statistical rather than verbal analysis of various forms of communication

Evaluation Research A quantified comparative research design that assists in the development of new skills or approaches Aids in solving of problems with direct implications for the “real world” Important for CJ practitioner-researchers b/c it assess the merits of programs and policies

Combination Research Frequently in criminological research, a combination of strategies are utilized. A research design is a combination of qualitative and quantitative research in that a serious review of the prior research is expected to have been conducted and its contributions to the development of the quantitative research