Kantian Ethics 1724-1804 Spent virtually all of his life in Konigsberg, East Prussia. From a Lutheran family. Never married. Immanuel Kant

Distinguish Utilitarianism—Teleological Theory Goal directed Kantian Ethics—Deontological Theory Duty based

Kant’s Moral Theory Kant wanted to “seek out and establish the supreme principle of morality.”

Morality and Rationality For Kant, all of morality has its ultimate source in rationality. The categorical imperative, in any formulation, is an expression of rationality, and it is the principle that would be followed in practice by any purely rational being.

Morality and Rationality Moral rules are not mere arbitrary conventions or subjective standards. They are objective truths that have their source in the rational nature of human beings.

Autonomy For Kant, morality presupposes autonomy. Autonomous = not controlled by others or by outside forces; independent. Independent in mind or judgment; self-directed.

Consequences are Morally Irrelevant For Kant, the consequences of an action are morally irrelevant. Rather, an action is right when it is in accordance with a rule that satisfies a principle he calls the “categorical imperative.”

Categorical Imperative And to act out of respect for the law means to follow the “categorical imperative.” Cf. Hypothetical Imperative

Categorical Imperative Kant’s moral theory centers around the categorical imperative. “Act only on that maxim which you can at the same time will to be a universal law.”

Universality You must be willing to see your maxim universalized (by similarly situated persons) even though it may turn out on some other occasion to work to your disadvantage.

Psychological Agreement Not Required For a maxim to satisfy the categorical imperative, it is not necessary that we be agreeable in some psychological sense to seeing it made into a universal law. Rather, the test is one that requires us to avoid inconsistency or conflict in what we will as a universal rule.

Similar Cases = Similar Treatment All things being equal, justice dictates that similarly situated people ought to be treated similarly.

Other Formulations “I am never to act unless I am acting on a maxim that I can will to become a universal law.” “Act as if the maxims you choose to follow always become universal laws of nature.” “Act so as to treat people as ends unto themselves and never merely as a means.”

What’s a Maxim? A maxim is a succinct formulation of a fundamental principle, general truth, or rule of conduct.

Maxims More specifically, they are the general rules or principles on which rational agents act and they reflect the end that an agent has in view in choosing actions of a certain type in given circumstances.

Maxims Are Principles Of The Form: When in an S-type situation, act in an A-type manner in order to attain end-E.

Maxim Example “When I incur a debt, I should pay off the debt as soon as possible so as to avoid incurring unnecessary obligations.” (You should promptly pay off your debts.)

Maxim The categorical imperative tests maxims by prescribing a thought experiment in which you ask yourself whether everyone should do what the maxim states.

Categorical Imperative If the maxim passes this test, then it’s morally permissible. If it fails the test, then it’s morally impermissible.

Objective Rules of Morality In passing the test, the maxims cease to be merely personal and subjective. They gain the status of objective rules of morality that hold for everyone.

Categorical Imperative So can you live in a world in which everyone promptly repaid his or her debt?

Can you will this maxim to be a universal law? Another Maxim Can you will this maxim to be a universal law? “You should borrow money by falsely promising to repay.”

Promising Probably not, because the institution of promising would break down. No one would take you seriously when you made a promise.

Ends versus Means We should always treat persons as ends in themselves, never as a means to an end.

Example So with the lying example, the maxim is morally impermissible because it treats the person being lied to as a means to an end.

Kant’s Views on Lying By being deceived, I am being denied the dignity inherent in my status as a rational being. Lying is wrong in general, and it deprives me of my autonomy, of my power to make decisions and form my own opinions. As a result, such deception dehumanizes me.

Motive The moral worth of an action is determined by one’s motive. Motive = An emotion, desire, physiological need or similar impulse that acts as an incitement to action.

Good Will “Nothing can possibly be conceived in the world, or even out of it, which can be called good without qualification, except a good will.” Happiness is a qualified good.

Duty The proper motive is to do one’s duty simply because it is one’s duty. To act out of duty means to act out of respect for the law.

Example Nurse provides special care to severely ill patient. Why? Hopes the patient or family will reward him with a generous gift. Fear of getting sued. Is he doing the right thing for the wrong reason?

Perfect Duty: One we must always observe. Examples? Distinction Perfect Duty: One we must always observe. Examples? Imperfect Duty: One that we must observe only on some occasions.

Group Discussion Do you agree with Immanuel Kant that lying is wrong in all circumstances? What are some situations in which you believe lying might be ethically justified? Why? How do you think Kant would respond to these "exceptions" to telling the truth?

Difficulties with Kant’s Ethics Kant’s ethical theory is not realistic. Don’t moral principles have exceptions? Examples: Prohibitions against killing, lying, stealing, etc.

Kant’s Ethics in the Medical Context No matter what the consequences may be, it is always wrong to lie. We must always treat people (including ourselves) as ends and not as means only. An action is right when it satisfies the categorical imperative. Perfect and imperfect duties give a basis for claims that certain rights should be recognized.

Discussion Questions Is it morally permissible to lie for (supposedly) benevolent purposes? Is it morally permissible to lie to a patient who has Stage 4 cancer? How about the surgeon who promised the patient that only he would operate on her? Cadaver example? Body Worlds?

Difficulties with Kant’s Ethics What do we do when duties conflict? Example: Doctor promises a colleague that he’ll attend a staff conference. On the way, he sees a patient lapse into an insulin coma. Duty to keep our promises vs. Duty to assist others. What does your moral intuition tell you? Hierarchy of duties?

Difficulties with Kant’s Ethics It seems that we can act virtually in any way we choose if we are willing to describe the situation in sufficient detail. (1) “Lie when it is convenient for you.” (2) “Lie when telling the truth is likely to cause harm to another.” (3) “Whenever a physician has good reason to believe that a patient’s life will be seriously threatened if she is told the truth about the condition, then the physician should lie.”

Difficulties with Kant’s Ethics The concept of autonomy might be problematic. Under what conditions can we assume that an individual possesses such a will? Does a child, a mentally-challenged person, or someone in prison? Without such a will, in Kant’s view, such an individual cannot legitimately consent to be the subject of an experiment.