Morphology There are several ways of forming words in English and Arabic, but the most common ways are derivation, inflection and compounding. This chapter is an attempt to discuss the derivational systems of English and Arabic comparatively.

Derivation Derivation is one of the major processes of word-formation in English. Derivational morphemes can produce new words from existing words in two ways. First, they can change the meaning of a word, e.g. true , untrue. Second, they can change the lexical category of a word ,e.g. (true ) is an adjective ,( truly) an adverb , (truth) a noun.

Nouns derived from nouns 1-( small x) - : let ,ette ,-ie e.g.:- droplet , booklet , cigarette , doggie 2-( female x) :- ess ,- ine e.g.:- waitress, princess, heroine 3-( inhabitant of x) -: -er,-(i) an e.g. :- Londoner , new Yorker , Texan, Glaswegian 4-(state of being an x) :-ship ,- hood (state of being an x) e.g.:- kingship , ladyship ,motherhood , priesthood 5-( devotee of x) : - ist, ian e.g. contortionist , Islamist , logician , historian

Nouns derived from adjectives and verbs 6 – (- ity) , e.g. Purity , equality , ferocity , sensitivity 7- (-ness) , e.g. goodness , tallness, fierceness, sensitiveness. 8- (-ism) e.g. radicalism, conservatism

Nouns derived from verbs There are numerous suffixes for deriving nouns from verbs. Here are just a few :- 9- ( - ance ,- ence) e.g. performance , ignorance , reference convergence , acceptance , dependence 10 – (- ment) ,eg announcement , commitment , development , engagement , agreement , placement 11- (-ing ) ,e.g. painting , singing, building , ignoring

Ns derived from Vs 12- (- (a) t) ion ) e.g. denunciation ,commission, organization confusion 13- (- al ) e.g. refusal , arrival , referral, committal , proposal 14- (-er ,-or ) e.g. painter , singer ,organizer, grinder leader, actor ,director 15- (-y) e.g. delivery , flattery, discovery , recovery

Nouns derived from members of other word classes (-acy) e.g. conspiracy, supremacy. (-age ) e.g. coinage , shortage , percentage, shrinkage (-dom ) e.g. kingdom, freedom, dukedom (-(e)ry) e.g. slavery , refinery

Adjectives derived from adjectives In this category, prefixes predominate; the only suffix is (-ish) , meaning ( some what x ) e.g. greenish , smallish , remotish By contrast, the prefix (un-)meaning not is extremely widely spread, e.g.:- unhappy, unsure, unreliable, undiscovered however ,this does not mean that (un-) can be prefixed to all adjectives quite freely .

Adj made from prefixes Another negative prefixes are (in -) ,( ill-) ,(ir-) (im-) e.g. intangible , illegal , irresponsible and impossible And also other productive prefixes, such as : (dis-) disorder – disobey (mis) - Mistrust – misunderstood . (non-) non- cooperative – non – existent

Adjectives derived from members of other word classes Further suffixes that commonly form adjectives from verbs with their basic meanings, are :- 1- (- able) "able to be x ed" : breakable , agreeable, remarkable, reliable , readable. 2- (-ent,-ant) "tending, to x" :-repellent , expectant , excellent, confident , dependent 3- (-ive ) "tending to x" :- repulsive, explosive , creative, attractive , selective , preventive , instructive

Adj made from N Suffixes that form adjectives from nouns are more numerous here are some :- 1-( - ful) e.g. joyful , hopeful, helpful, meaningful, powerful, skillful, faithful, beautiful, successful 2- (-less) e.g. Joyless, hopeless , helpless, meaningless, powerless, homeless ,worthless, useless 3-(-al)e.g. original , normal, personal, national, universal, regional

Adj made from N 4- (-ish) e.g. boyish – selfish, waspish, loutish, foolish, childish ,sheepish 5- (-y) e.g. funny, stormy, sunny, guilty, messy, wealthy, gloomy. 6- (-ly) e.g. friendly, orderly, manly, costly, monthly. 7.(- ous) e.g. dangerous , mysterious, famous, nervous, poisonous.

Adj made from N 8-(-ary)e.g. momentary, customary, fragmentary, complimentary, honorary, revolutionary. 9- (-ic)e.g. historic, artistic, athletic, basic, rhythmic, photographic, Islamic, scientific, realistic, 10-(-some)e.g. handsome, lovesome, tiresome. 11-(-en)e.g. wooden, woolen, golden.

Verbs derived from verbs This section is unusual in that all the affixes are prefixes , most prominent are (re-) and the negative prefixes (un-) ,(de-) ,(dis-) ,as in the following examples 1-repaint, re-enter 2-untie, untangle 3-decompose, desensitize, 4- disentangle, disbelieve

Verbs derived from members of other word classes Verbs derived from nouns and from adjectives are numerous. Some affixes for deriving verbs from noun are:- 1-(de-) e.g.:-. debug, deforest, delouse. 2- (-ize) e.g.:- organize, patronize, terrorize, realize , materialize , apologize, criticize 3- (-(i)fy) e.g.:- beautify, gentrify, petrify, identify, clarify, glorify, simplify.

V derived from other classes 4(-en)e.g.:- shorten- sweeten- lengthen- blacken- widen- broaden. (de-)e.g:- meaning is (remove x from ). However, neither (-ize) nor (-ify) has a clear-cut meaning a part from its verb – forming function . These suffixes can derive verbs from adjectival bases too, as in nationalize, tenderize, intensify, purify.

Adverbs-making suffixes (-ly) e.g., easily – recently ,privately, noisily, socially (-wise) e.g., clockwise, valuwise In the chart below, some of the most common prefixes are listed, ante – (before) anti-(against) auto-(self) bi-( two)

Adverbs-making suffixes ante – (before) anti-(against) auto-(self) bi-( two) circum ( around) con-,co- (together) ex- , e- (out-from) inter- (between) macro- (large) micro- (small) mis- (wrong) mono- (one) post- (behind , after)

Adv. Making preffixes pre- (first) pro- (for, before) re- (again) sub- (under) trans- (across) tri- (three) uni- (one) ultra- (beyond) un-ir-in- (not)

Origin of Derivational Affixes -er Driver, painter. - ness Ugliness, coldness. - ing Singing, playing. - dom Freedom, kingdom. - hood Brotherhood, manhood -ship Leadership, friendship - th Breath, length. - let Booklet, islet.

Adjective-forming affixes: -ful Joyful -less Harmless -y Cozy -ish Childish -ly Lovely -en Golden -some Handsome like Ladylike

Verb-forming affixes -enWiden Adverb-forming affixes -wise-ly Rarely Clockwise Prefixes be-Befriend mis-Misuse un-Unselfish over-Overdo

able/ -ible Capable, divisible. -ant/-ent Servant, student. Borrowed Affixes have come to the English language from different foreign languages. The affixes of foreign origin are classified according to their source into: -Latin able/ -ible Capable, divisible. -ant/-ent Servant, student. extra- Extralinguistic. pre- Pre-election. ultra- Ultra-high. Examples

Greek -ist Artist -ism Marxism -ite Vulcanite anti- Anti-democratic Sy m-/ sin-E Synthesis

French -age Percentage -ance/ -ence Extravagance, coherence -ard Wizard -ate Electorate -ee Employee -ess Princess en-/ em- Enclose, embed Examples