Memory Memory can be defined as the storage of learned information for retrieval and future use. Memory is the retention of, and ability to recall, information, personal experiences, and procedures (skills and habits).

The Information-Processing Model of Memory Memory may be thought of as a three-stage process, in which information in each stage lasts longer than in the preceding one.

Information-Processing Model · views the working of the mind as analogous to a computer A. Encoding (getting information into memory) Analogy 1. computer: keyboard or other input device 2. human: sensory information is received B. Storage (retaining information) Analogy 1. computer: information is stored on hard drive or disk 2. human: information is stored in memory C. Retrieval (getting information out of memory) Analogy 1. computer: load program/file 2. human: bringing information into conscious awareness

Atkinson-Shiffrin Model A. Sensory Memory 1. 2 Types of Sensory Memory a. iconic: sensory memory of visual stimuli, lasting less than a second b. echoic: sensory memory of acoustical stimuli, lasting 3 to 4 seconds B. Short-term Memory (STM) 1. Capacity of Short-term Memory (STM) a. modern view: STM can hold as much information as can be repeated or rehearsed in 1.5 to 2 seconds. b. traditional view: can hold 7 + 2 items 2. duration: 20 seconds unless use C. 2 Types of Rehearsal 1. elaborative: rehearsing and attaching meaning to information to be remembered 2. maintenance: the rehearsal and retention of information until a specified period of time D. Long-term Memory 1. no known limit on capacity

Short-Term Memory (STM) STM is characterized by: A limited capacity of up to seven pieces of independent information. The brief duration of these items last from 3 to 20 seconds. Decay appears to be the primary mechanism of memory loss. The process of transferring information from STM to LTM involves the encoding or consolidation of information. This is not a function of time, that is, the longer a memory stayed in STM, the more likely it was to be placed into LTM; but on organizing complex information in STM before it can be encoded into LTM. In this process of organization, the meaningfulness or emotional content of an item may play a greater role in its retention into LTM. As instructional designers, we must find ways to make learning relevant and meaningful enough for the learner to make the important transfer of information to long-term memory.

Miller's Magic Number George Miller's classic 1956 study found that the amount of information which can be remembered on one exposure is between five and nine items, depending on the information.  Applying a range of +2 or -2, the number 7 became known as Miller's Magic Number, the number of items which can be held in Short-Term Memory at any one time. Miller himself stated that his magic number was for items with one aspect. His work is based on subjects listening to a number of auditory tones that varied only in pitch. Each tone was presented separately, and the subject was asked to identify each tone relative to the others she had already heard, by assigning it a number. After about five or six tones, subjects began to get confused, and their capacity for making further tone judgments broke down. He found this to be true of a number of other tasks. But if more aspects are included, then we can remember more, depending upon our familiarity and the complexity of the subject (in Miller's research, there was only one aspect -- the tone). For example, we can remember way more human faces as there are a number of aspects, such as hair color, hair style, shape of face, facial hair, etc. We remember phone numbers by their aspects of 2 or more groupings. We don't really remember "seven" numbers. We remember the first group of three and then the other grouping of four numbers. If it is long distance, then we add an area code. So we actually remember 10 numbers by breaking it into groups of three. Social Security numbers work on the same principle -- xxx-xx-xxxx (3 groups of numbers). Also, I'm not sure why we have seven numbers in the phone system. The author states it is not based upon Miller's work, but never states why.6

Problems with STM Researsal. If information is rehearsed more, then it should be retrieved better later. But that turned out to be not always true. Recency effect with long delays. It was shown that if there were long delays after presenting each item in a list, then there would be a recency effect. But there shouldn't be, because a long delay after an item should get it out of STM before it is to be retrieved. Word length effect. There is an indirect relationship between word length and proportion of words recalled, so longer words are less easy to report. That doesn't fit with standard view of STM, because the pieces of information that are in STM shouldn't be related to the length of the words; this suggests it's the syllables that are important, rather than the words themselves, which is odd. Dual task experiments. Dual task experiments suggested that not all information use the same resources

Working Memory Model · an active part of LTM that includes STM A. Components of Working Memory 1. Central Executive a. limited-capacity attentional system b. responsible for strategy selection & integration of information from various sources (includes the 2 slave systems) 2. Articulatory/Phonological Loop a. a “slave system” that is responsible for maintaining & manipulating speech-based information which consists of: i. phonological memory store ii. process of sub-vocal rehearsal 3. Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad a. a “slave system” that holds and manipulates visuo-spatial information

Levels of Processing Theory (Craik & Lockhart) A. main points 1. there is only one type of memory store 2. processing (rehearsing) of information is important. B. 2 Types of Processing (LOP) 1. shallow (surface): rehearsing general characteristics of objects, people, or events a. remembered information is vague 2. deep: using elaborative rehearsal C. Main Point of LOP Theory 1. The deeper the level of processing, the richer the detail of the memory.

Type of Long-Term Memory I. Explicit Memory (declarative memory) · the memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know & “declare” A. Semantic Memory 1. The portion of long-term memory that stores general facts and information. 2. Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon (TOT) a. The condition of being able to, but not quite, remember something. b. Characteristics of TOT i. becomes more frequent in stressful situations & as we age ii. words similar to target word interfere with recall iii. occurs most often with low-usage words B. Episodic Memory (autobiographical memory) 1. memory of one’s personal experiences 2. Flashbulb Memory a. A vivid memory for a highly emotional situation; seems to require an element of surprise.

Implicit Memory · information/knowledge that one possesses, but is not able to explain it to other people A. Procedural (Skill) Memory 1. Memory for how to make specific responses and perform skilled actions. a. e.g., riding a bicycle, keys on a keyboard, reading B. Dispositional Memory 1. classical and operant conditioning effects 1

Reasons Forgetting Occurs 1) encoding failure: information was either encoded improperly or not at all 2) decay: through lack of use and rehearsal information is forgotten 3) retrieval failure: the information is in LTM, but your are unable to access it 4) interference a) Types of Interference i) proactive: old information interferes with the learning of new information ii) retroactive: new information interferes with the recall of old information

USING THE INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH IN THE CLASSROOM PrincipleExample1. Gain the students' attention. Use cues to signal when you are ready to begin. Move around the room and use voice inflections. 2. Bring to mind relevant prior learning. Review previous day's lesson. Have a discussion about previously covered content. 3. Point out important information. Provide handouts. Write on the board or use transparencies. 4. Present information in an organized manner. Show a logical sequence to concepts and skills. Go from simple to complex when presenting new material. 5. Show students how to categorize (chunk) related information