International Policy Making Some environmental problems are not restricted by boundaries E.g. Marine pollution, Desertification, Ozone depletion, Climate change, Genetically Modified Organisms(GMOs), Biodiversity loss Global environmental problems require international solutions and cooperation International politics Multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs)

International relations paradox Neo-realist perspective Self-governing states operate in an anarchic system Behaviour is almost exclusively shaped by considerations of power politics Limited trust amongst nation results in each nation primarily aiming to survive by accumulating more power Co-operation to protect the global environment is unlikely Co-operation is possible if all nations share similar goals & gains This eliminates the “free-ride” perspective Institutionalist perspectives Co-operation is possible and balanced when nations see that the benefits of co-operation will outweigh the costs of non co-operation

International regimes 1973 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) 1975 Ramsar Convection 1992 UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) 1994 UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)

Development of climate change regime 1979: First World Climate Conference Agreed that human activities had increased levels of CO2 and that more CO2 may contribute to global warming 1985: The World Climate Programme conference Agreed that increased CO2 levels would lead to increases in mean temperature and thus was linked to global warming

International regimes 1988: Toronto Conference Recommended a 20% reduction in CO2 emissions by 2005 1988: Formation of the IPCC Formed by UNEP and the World Meteorological Organisation First report confirmed that human activities were contributing to climate change and called for immediate policy action to reduce carbon emissions

International regimes 1992: Rio Summit Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) signed by over 155 nations (enforced in 1994) Voluntary goal to decrease carbon to 1990 levels Lead to be taken by developed countries and to financially and technologically assist developing countries 1995: Conference of Parties to the Framework Convention (COP 1) Berlin mandate: recognised the need to work towards a protocol that set targets and strengthened commitments to reduce greenhouse emissions

International regimes 1997 Kyoto Protocol (COP-3) Agreed legally binding targets and timetables for developed countries Developed countries had to reduce greenhouse gases to 5.2% to 1990 levels (between 2008-2012) 2001: Bonn agreement Japan and Russia were persuaded to sign a binding agreement

References Neil Carter. 2007. The Politics of the Environment: Ideas, Activism, Policy. 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press, New York