HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN Chapter 4 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN

What does human development entail and why is it important? Describe the characteristics of human development Discuss different domains of human development Discuss the determinant of human behaviour Explain significance of critical periods in human development Describe career transitions and tasks Describe trends in people’s career development.

What is human development? Development is a sequence of age-related changes that occur as a person progresses from conception to death. Human beings go through different types of changes: Physical development Motor skills, bone structure, weight, etc. Cognitive development Thought patterns and skills, problem solving, etc. Social development Motional changes, personality, etc.

Why is the study of human development necessary? Development results in a repertoire of competencies Development studies enable people to determine schedule and norms showing what to expect of people Development provides continuity and identity in people’s way of behaviour Study of development provides a description of change and continuity in behaviour Development psychology emphasises the importance of development on child and adulthood New knowledge of human development forces scientists and practitioners to rethink ideas about human development in general.

The general nature of human development Transitions Progression through stages of development Ageing Chronological increase in years & biological physical changes Growth Increase in physical and biological structure & improvement in mental and psychosocial competencies Maturity Integration of physical, cognitive, social, psychological (independence) Readiness Level of sufficient maturity to benefit from learning or experiences.

Characteristics of human development Hierarchical evolution of phases Ready for certain types of experiences – critical periods Pre-set by maturation of biological systems Differentiation from general to particular Cortex discrimination & maturation Increased complexity Integrates – e.g. need for complexity, challenge Predictability Criteria for normality whereby individuals can be assessed.

Domains of human development Physical or biological domain Entails biological, motor and physical attributes Cognitive development Progressive development of thought processes, mental abilities and capabilities.

Cognitive development: Jean Piaget’s principle of self-regulation How does an organism adapts to its environment? Behaviour is controlled through mental organisations called schemes Individuals use schema to represent the world and designate action Two processes are used by the individual in his/her attempt to adapt Assimilation New information and experiences are interpreted and integrated with the existing mental process Accommodation Cognitive processes are changed to handle new experiences. Both of these processes are used throughout life as the individual increasingly adapts to the environment in a more complex manner.

Piaget’s stages of cognitive development STAGES AND AGES CHARACTERISTICS Sensory (birth - 2 years) Gains knowledge through looking at, touching, holding and manipulating objects Develops co-ordinations, and sensory motor perception becomes more complex Can distinguish between self and environment Has little ability to distinguish symbols. Pre-operations (ages 2-7 years ) Learns through actions Increasing able to remember and anticipate Internalises the concrete world through language and visual images. Concrete operations (ages 7-11 years) Child makes more progress in concrete thinking Achieve insight into the views of others Can handle problems more logically. For example, arithmetic equations can be solved with numbers, not just with objects. Formal operations (from 11 years onwards) Makes use of abstract thought Uses logical thinking and uses systematic and diverse approaches to problem-solving.

Cognitive development: Schaie’s theory Acquisition stage: childhood & adolescence Person acquires progressively more complex ways of thinking Achieving stage: young adulthood Involves problem-solving and decision making, through which the individual uses intellectual competencies to prepare career Responsibility stage: adulthood Individual needs to be an independent thinker Executive stage: middle adulthood Enables individuals through an increase knowledge to serve in responsible positions Reintegrative stage: late adulthood Individual must use accumulated repertoire of intellectual skills to assess life and give meaning to what is in the past.

Domains of human development Psychosocial development Progressive development of psychological an social behaviour – socialisation in humans Career related task development Contribute to career choice at certain stages.

Determinants of human development Heredity or genetic determination (etiology, causes) Many human similarities and unique behaviour are influences by unborn or genetic behaviour Environment and learning Environmentally acquired behaviour are ingrained as a result of social and cultural learning Interaction between person & environment Microsystem – the person in their living environment Mesosystem – interactions between elements of the microsystem Exosystem – outside the individual’s immediate contacts Macrosystems – focuses on specific cultural and societal values.

Critical periods in development Refers to certain point in time when particular factors will or have positive or negative influence Sensitive to particular type of stimulation Limited duration and lasting effect Effect noticeable in adulthood May be neutralised by subsequent positive experiences Optimum periods Maturation and learning responsible for successful development.

Critical periods: The first five or six years Vygotsky’s concept of social learning Children develop their ways of thinking and understanding primarily through interaction with others Bowlby and Ainsworth’s attachment behaviours Attachment is a special emotional relationship that involves an exchange of comfort, care, and pleasure. The propensity to make strong emotional bonds to particular individuals is a basic component of human nature Secure and insecure attachment behaviours Insecure attachment Ambivalent, avoidant and disorganised attachments Secure attachment Most probably lead to well-adjusted adults.

Critical periods: The first five or six years (continued) Freud’s psychosexual stages Oral (1st year) – mouth areas Anal (Age 1 to 1.5) – excretion areas Phallic (age 3 to 5) – genitals Latent (5 to 12) – non-sexual, relationships Genital (from 12 to 18) – genitals, partner sexuality Erikson’s life-span developmental theory Unique development task confronts individuals with crisis that must be resolved Positive resolution builds foundation for healthy development.

Erikson’s life-span developmental theory Ego-Integrity vs Despair Late Adulthood Ageing, Maturity Generativity vs Stagnation Adulthood Intimacy vs Isolation Late adolescence, Early adulthood Identity vs Role Confusion 18 years Puberty or early adolescence Industry vs Inferiority 6 to 11 years Through to puberty, latency Initiative vs Guilt 4 to 5 years Locomotor, genital Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt 2 to 3 years Muscular, anal Trust vs Mistrust 1st year of life Oral, sensory

Career stages and tasks

Career transition and tasks Progressive development and learning of work competencies and attitudes as part of general development Career maturity Progressive maturity and growth in physical, cognitive and psychosocial domains Career self-efficacy An individual’s belief in their own capabilities Developmental tasks Tasks which arise at certain period in an individual’s life, successful achievement of which lead to satisfaction with later tasks Adult career transition stages Early Life – Occupational choice and preparation Young Adult – Entry into and establishment in the workplace Middle Adulthood – Consolidation, maintenance and change Late Adulthood – Disengagement.

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