Psychological Bases of Behaviour part 2 Learning Theory د.ثراء الجودي

OVERVIEW A. Learning is the acquisition of new behavior patterns. B. Methods of learning include simple forms, such as habituation and sensitization, and more complex types, including classical conditioning and operant conditioning. C. Learning methods are the basis of behavioral treatment techniques, such as systematic desensitization, aversive conditioning, flooding, biofeedback, token economy, and cognitive therapy

HABITUATION AND SENSITIZATION In habituation (also called desensitization), repeated stimulation results in a decreased response (e.g., a child who receives weekly allergy injections cries less and less with each injection). In sensitization, repeated stimulation results in an increased response (e.g., a child who is afraid of spiders feels more anxiety each time he encounters a spider).

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Principles In classical conditioning, a natural or reflexive response (behavior) is elicited by a learned stimulus (a cue from an internal or external event). This type of learning is called associative learning. 1. The hippocampus is particularly important in associative learning. 2. The cerebellum participates in classical conditioning, specifically in associations involving motor skills.

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Elements of classical conditioning 1. An unconditioned stimulus is something that automatically, without having to be learned, produces a response (e.g., the odor of food). 2. An unconditioned response is a natural, reflexive behavior that does not have to be learned (e.g., salivation in response to the odor of food). 3. A conditioned stimulus is something that produces a response following learning (e.g., the sound of the lunch bell). 4. A conditioned response is a behavior that is learned by an association made between a conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus (e.g., salivation in response to the lunch bell).

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Response acquisition, extinction, and stimulus generalization 1. In acquisition, the conditioned response (e.g., salivation in response to the lunch bell) is learned. 2. In extinction, the conditioned response decreases if the conditioned stimulus (e.g., the sound of the lunch bell) is never again paired with the unconditioned stimulus (e.g., the odor of food). 3. In stimulus generalization, a new stimulus (e.g., a church bell) that resembles a conditioned stimulus (e.g., the lunch bell) causes a conditioned response (e.g., salivation).

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Aversive conditioning An unwanted behavior (e.g., setting fires) is paired with a painful or aversive stimulus (e.g., a painful electric shock). An association is created between the unwanted behavior (fire-setting) and the aversive stimulus (pain) and the fire-setting ceases.

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Learned helplessness 1. An animal receives a series of painful electric shocks from which it is unable to escape. 2. By classical conditioning, the animal learns that there is an association between an aversive stimulus (e.g., painful electric shock) and the inability to escape. 3. Subsequently, the animal makes no attempt to escape when shocked or when faced with any new aversive stimulus; instead, the animal becomes hopeless and apathetic. 4. Learned helplessness in animals may be a model system for depression (often characterized by hopelessness and apathy) in humans. 5. Antidepressant treatment increases escape attempts in animal models.

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Imprinting is the tendency of organisms to make an association with and then follow the first thing they see after birth or hatching (in birds).

OPERANT CONDITIONING Principles 1. Behavior is determined by its consequences for the individual. The consequence (reinforcement or punishment) occurs immediately following a behavior. 2. In operant conditioning, a behavior that is not part of the individual’s natural repertoire can be learned through reinforcement.

OPERANT CONDITIONING Features 1. The likelihood that a behavior will occur is increased by positive or negative reinforcement and decreased by punishment or extinction. Types of reinforcement include: (1) Positive reinforcement (reward) is the introduction of a positive stimulus that results in an increase in the rate of behavior. (2) Negative reinforcement (escape) is the removal of an aversive stimulus that also results in an increase in the rate of behavior. Punishment is the introduction of an aversive stimulus aimed at reducing the rate of an unwanted behavior.

OPERANT CONDITIONING 2. Extinction in operant conditioning is the gradual disappearance of a learned behavior when reinforcement (reward) is withheld. The pattern, or schedule, of reinforcement affects how quickly a behavior is learned and how quickly a behavior becomes extinguished when it is not rewarded. Resistance to extinction is the force that prevents the behavior from disappearing when a reward is withheld.

OPERANT CONDITIONING Shaping and modeling 1.Shaping involves rewarding closer and closer approximations of the wanted behavior until the correct behavior is achieved (e.g., a child learning to write is praised when she makes a letter, even though it is not formed perfectly). 2. Modeling is a type of observational learning (e.g., an individual behaves in a manner similar to that of someone she admires).

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