U.S. Immigration and Incorporation Policies 1492-1965 Political Science 126C / Chicano/Latino Studies 163 Lecture 3 January 13, 2009

Ongoing Tension in U.S. “Immigration” Policy Assertion – The U.S. (and its colonial predecessors) has a low concentration of people to the land, so labor is in demand Leads to ongoing tension between: Economic interests seeking labor Non-economic sectors of the economy fearing: Labor competition Cultural change Loss of U.S. democratic values

Population Density per km2 Population Densities, 2006 Population Density per km2 Monaco 23,660 Taiwan 636 United Kingdom 246 Mexico 55 Land area of world 48 United States 31 Greenland 0.026

Dominant Model: Receptivity to Some Immigrants Economic needs (and, over-time, immigrant/ethnic organization) drive long-periods of openness to some immigrants Each of these periods of inclusion have slowed, but restriction the exception Economic interests powerful and can demonstrate the need for additional labor Electoral politics responsive to immigrant/ethnic group organization

U.S. Legal Immigration, By Decade, 1821-present

Inclusion Likely to Continue Globalized world, however, ensures that demand far exceeds willingness to take immigrants So, debate is increasingly over Which immigrants to accept How to attract desired immigrants How rigorously to enforce restrictions on potential immigrants What to do with people who are able to immigrate despite prohibitions

Periodizing Immigration Before 1965 “Open borders” (1492 – 1875) Nature provided many limits Colonies/states encouraged some and discouraged other potential migrants Colonial patterns remain with U.S. independence Steadily growing restrictions (1875-1921) Tension between economic interests and cultural change Government used this period to create bureaucracy to implement restriction Restriction at its peak (1921-1965) National Origin Quota Laws (1921 and 1924)

Colonial Roots “He (King George III) has endeavored to prevent the population of these States; for that purpose obstructing the Laws of Naturalization of Foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither; and raising the conditions of new Appropriations of Lands.” - U.S. Declaration of Independence

Colonial Americas Set Continuing Patterns Tactical use of emigration in England (and Europe) Labor demands shaped national policy But not all labor, so selective recruitment Efforts to categorize immigrants to create/maintain social hierarchies Slave Indentured labor Free migrants Indentured labor status impossible to enforce with vast available lands Beginning of desire to get immigrant’s labor without extending societal rights (call them the guest workers of their era)

Immigration and Early National Ideology Need for (White) settlers raised a new “right” in the minds of colonists – migration (or expatriation from country of origin) No consensus though on a related “right” – incorporation Cultural difference of some migrants raised questions in many minds about whether they could be incorporated

The First Great Wave (1787) 1820 - 1860

Pre-Revolutionary Patterns Continue States selectively recruit immigrants Work with shipping companies and European recruiters Part of recruitment is promise of citizenship Competition for immigrant labor increases as U.S. expands Westward States begin offering rights before citizenship Sources of migration diversify Northwestern Europe / Caribbean … and narrow New migration from Africa for purposes of slavery ended after 1808

As European Wars End, Numbers Surge Relative European peace after Congress of Vienna (1815) makes travel safe for a century 1820s – 143,439 1830s – 599,125 1840s – 1,713,251 1850s – 2,598,214 Immigrants increasingly “diverse” Irish, Germans, and (1850s) some Chinese and Mexicans Catholics and some Jews

Popular Opposition to Immigration Appears Selectively Alien and Sedition Acts (1798) Fear that immigrants will undermine American political values Reflects first appearance of partisanship Effort to restrict rights of immigrants to naturalize leads to Federalist defeat The Know-Nothing Movement (1850s) Fear of Catholic migrants/labor competition Effort to restrict nationalization (not immigration) Know-Nothing Movement dissolves as national focus shifts to slavery and succession

First Tentative Efforts at Immigration “Regulation” 1821 – Ships bringing migrants to U.S. had to provide the government with their manifests So, the first data we have on numbers of immigrants 1847 – Protections for passengers on merchant vessels 1862 – Prohibition on transportation of Chinese “coolies” on U.S. flag ships States (California) attempt more extensive regulation

The Third Great Wave 1865-1921

Period of Sustained Demand (and Economic Uncertainty) Numbers surge 1860s – 2,314,824 1870s – 2,812,191 1880s – 5,426,613 1890s – 3,687,564 1900s – 8,795,386 1910s – 5,735,811 And sources multiply Southern and Eastern Europe

Native Populations Come to Fear New Immigrants At root, a question of labor competition But, national ideology supported immigration, so new political/organizational strategies tested to galvanize opposition to immigration “Unfree” labor (Chinese migrants/coolies) Health concerns Ideology and political loyalty Ethnic difference Regulatory structure had to be built to enforce restriction

Consequence – Chinese Exclusion Act (1882) Suspends Chinese labor immigration for 10 years Continues to allow elite migration from China: those “proceeding to the United States … from curiosity” Held to be Constitutional—Chae Chan Ping v. U.S. (1889) Remains in place until 1940 when war-time imperatives allow for limited Chinese immigration Chinese American residents of U.S. find ways to evade its restrictions

Asian Restriction as the Root of Broader Restrictions Asian exclusion begins 40-year growth in exclusion Exclusion of single women (using notion that they were destined for prostitution) Exclusion based on belief Exclusion based on health status – Ellis Island Exclusion based on behaviors Exclusion based on skills (or lack of skills) Piecemeal exclusions, despite widespread popular opposition to immigration from 1890s Why? See Tichenor

End of Era: National Origin Quotas Most restrictive immigration law in U.S. history Attempt to freeze national ethnic composition in 1890 (1924 law) All but Northern/Western Europeans faced exclusion Absolute bar on Asian immigration Regulatory structure in place to enforce Issuance of visas abroad Border inspection stations

“Restriction” Created Opportunities for Some Demand for immigrant labor continued Consequence New demand for migration from the Americas Rapid expansion of migration from Mexico and the Caribbean Industries (particularly agriculture) become dependent on Latino labor “Short-term” labor migration The Bracero Program Puerto Rican cyclical migration

Era of Immigration Restriction 1921-1965

Initially Very Successful National opposition to immigration strong Economic interests able to meet demand for labor Migration from the Americas Domestic migration (Rural to urban and Blacks from South to North) Depression and World War II reduce demand for migration from Europe Some fraud