CH. 2-3 Macromolecules

I. Organic Compounds Compounds that contain CARBON are called organic. B. Macromolecules are large organic molecules.

C. Carbon Carbon can bond with many elements to form the molecules of life. Carbon has 4 electrons in its outer shell. Carbon can form covalent bonds with as many as 4 other atoms, including other atoms of carbon. Carbon has the ability to form millions of different large and complex molecules. Example: CH4 (methane)

Carbon Compounds

D. Macromolecules Large organic molecules called POLYMERS. Made up of smaller “building blocks” called MONOMERS. Examples: 1. Carbohydrates 2. Lipids 3. Proteins 4. Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA)

Carbohydrates Organic compounds that are made up of C, H and O They range from small sugar molecules to large starch molecules. Examples: A. monosaccharides- simple sugars B. disaccharides- compound sugars C. polysaccharides- chains of sugars

Dehydration Synthesis of two monosaccharide sugars to make a disaccharide sugar: C6 H12 O6 + C6 H12 O6 C12 H22 O11 + H2 O glucose fructose sucrose water

A. monosaccharides: one unit sugars. Examples include: glucose (C6H12O6) (The type of sugar that flows through our blood vessels and feeds our cells) deoxyribose & ribose ( The sugars found in our heredity materials: DNA and RNA) fructose (C6H12O6) (The type of sugar found in fruits such as apples and grapes) galactose (C6H12O6) ( Used to make double sugars)

Glucose and Fructose Comparison

Glucose Fructose Ring Structure

B. disaccharide: two unit sugars Examples: maltose = glucose + glucose (Malt sugar used in fermentation processes) sucrose = glucose + fructose (The transport form of sugar in plants) lactose = glucose + galactose (The type of sugar found in a mammal’s breast milk) fructose glucose Sucrose

C. Polysaccharides or complex carbohydrates are formed from many sugar units. Examples: starch (bread, potatoes, pasta….) ( The storage form of carbohydrates in plants) glycogen (found mammal muscle and liver) (The storage form of carbohydrates in animals cellulose (lettuce, corn)

Two more examples of polysaccharides include: - cellulose (Makes up the leaves of plants and is only digestable by certain animalsie cows, deer, etc… ruminants) - chitin (Makes up the exoskeleton of many Arthropods (crayfish), Aracnids(spiders) and Insects glucose cellulose

Cellulose

III. Lipids General term for a large and varied group of biological compounds which are not soluble in water. Lipids are soluble in hydrophobic solvents. Examples: A. Fats (Triglycerides) B. Oils C. Waxes D. Steroids

Five functions of Lipids: 1. Long term energy storage 2. Protection against heat loss (insulation) 3. Protection against physical shock 4. Protection against water loss 5. Chemical messengers (hormones)

Another word for fat is a Triglyceride Triglycerides: composed of 1 glycerol and 3 fatty acids. H H-C----O glycerol O C-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3 = O C-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3 = fatty acids O C-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH =CH-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3 =

There are two kinds of fatty acids you may see these on food labels: 1. Saturated fatty acids: have no double bonded carbon bonds. Solid at room temperature. These fats are associated with animals. Examples are animal fat, butter and lard. They are solid at room temperature.They are considered the bad fats and tend to deposit cholesterol to our blood vessels. No double bonded carbons. (trans fat)

2. Polyunsaturated fatty acids: do have double bonded carbon bonds 2. Polyunsaturated fatty acids: do have double bonded carbon bonds. They tend to be liquid at room temperature. These fats are associated with plants. Examples are vegetable oil, canola oil, peanut oil etc…. They are liquid at room temperature.They are considered the good fats and tend to collect cholesterol from our blood vessels and return it to our liver for processing.. A double bonded carbon places kinks into the fat.

H2O H2O H2O The dehydration synthesis of a triglyceride requires the removal of 3 molecules of water. The hydrolysis or digestion of a triglyceride requires the addition of 3 molecules of water.

B. Phospholipids- a molecule that is composed of a phosphate group and two fatty acids attached to a glycerol molecule.

Because phospholipids are arranged like this we use a simplified diagram to show their structure.

Polar phosphate head loves water Non polar fatty acid tails fear water.

This is how two layers of phospholipid molecules would arrange themselves in water. A single layer of phospholipid in water

Phospholipids Are a major component of all cell membranes.

Steroids Are a group of chemicals that are used in our cells as chemical messengers. Examples include hormones such as estrogen and testosterone.)

IV. Proteins (Polypeptides) Proteins are large polymers are made up of amino acids. There are 20 different kinds of amino acid monomers bonded together by peptide bonds. Proteins are known as polypeptides. Amino acids are made up of the atoms C,H,O and N Below is a list of some common proteins and their function: 1. Storage: albumin (egg white) 2. Transport: hemoglobin (red blood cells) 3. Regulatory: hormones (Insulin) 4. Movement: muscles 5. Structural: membranes, hair, nails, hoofs and horns. 6. Enzymes: Speed up or catalyze chemical reactions in or cells.

Amino Acids Have A Basic Chemical Structure

Six of the 20 Different Amino Acids

Amino Group

Dehydration Synthesis of two different amino acids producing a dipeptide

Proteins can be 100’s of amino acids’s long Proteins can be 100’s of amino acids’s long! And the order of the amino acids, determines the particular protein. There are 1,000’s of different proteins! Our genes tell our cells how to arrange the amino acids in the correct order to make a particular protein!

… Digestion Cow Protein Human Protein A new protein chain is formed by the instructions in our genes. Human Protein

Insulin protein Structure

Hemoglobin Structure

1gram of Fat ~ 9calories 1gram of Protein ~ 4 calories 1gram of Carbs ~ 4 calories Also, 1 gram of alcohol ~ 7 calories Calculate the caloric content from just the fat of a of a Whopper Hamburger if the grams of fat = 64?

4. Nucleic acids Two types: a. deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA-double helix) b. ribonucleic acid (RNA-single strand) Nucleic acids are composed of long chains of nucleotides linked by dehydration synthesis.

Nucleotide O O=P-O N CH2 O C1 C4 C3 C2 Phosphate Group Nitrogenous base (A, G, C, or T) CH2 O C1 C4 C3 C2 5 Sugar (deoxyribose)

V. Nucleic acids A. Nucleotides: phosphate group sugar (5-carbon) nitrogenous bases adenine (A) thymine (T) - uracil (U) RNA cytosine (C) guanine (G)

DNA - double helix P O 1 2 3 4 5 P O 1 2 3 4 5 G C T A

More to come on the nucleic acids DNA and RNA when we look at Genetics, the study of Human Heredity.

Ch. 2-4 Enzymes

Question: What are enzymes?

Answer: Enzymes are: 1. Proteins: Most enzymes are proteins. 2. Catalysts: chemical agents or other agents such as heat that can accelerate a reaction without being permanently changed in the process.

Selective: There are specific enzymes for the specific reactions which they will catalyze. (Specificity - depends upon 3D shape) Lock and Key Analogy – Generally only a Specific key will open a certain lock similarly only a specific substrate will fit into a specific enzyme 4. Recycled: enzymes are reusable. 5. Many but not all enzymes have “ase” endings: examples: sucrase breaks down sucrose maltase breaks down maltose lactase breaks down lactose