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Biology: What is Life? life study of Properties of Life Cellular Structure: the unit of life, one or many Metabolism: photosynthesis, respiration, fermentation, digestion, gas exchange, secretion, excretion, circulation--processing materials and energy Growth: cell enlargement, cell number Movement: intracellular, movement, locomotion Reproduction: avoid extinction at death Behavior: short term response to stimuli Evolution: long term adaptation

Eukaryotic Growth Cells are generally much larger than prokaryotes Cells may double in size before mitosis Growth can be by increasing cell numbers and/or by increasing cell size…body complexity is another dimension of eukaryotic growth Mitosis only refers to nuclear division and must be coordinated with or preceded by binary fission of chloroplasts and mitochondria (the endosymbionts) to ensure that all progeny cells have complete cell components Eukaryotic genomes are distributed over several linear DNA molecules, are associated with histone proteins, and these must be replicated and moved in a coordinated way to avoid cells with incomplete genomes There are several styles of cytokinesis among eukaryotic organisms (including furrowing)

Eukaryotic Cell Cycle cytokinesis mitosis PMAT postsynthesis gap presynthesis gap G2 M G1 interphase S Compare Fig. 11.5 Pg. 227 DNA synthesis

Eukaryotic Cell Cycle cytokinesis mitosis PMAT postsynthesis gap M Interphase nucleus looks normal with intact nuclear envelope, chromatin, nucleolus, active transcription PMAT postsynthesis gap M presynthesis gap G2 G1 nucleus smaller, chromatin lighter, one nucleolus interphase S binary fission of mitochondria, chloroplasts and centriole in interphase! nucleus larger, chromatin darker, two nucleoli DNA synthesis

Mitosis = PMAT early late ------Prophase--------- Prophase: chromosome centromere ------Prophase--------- Mitosis = PMAT 2 sister chromatids Prophase: Transcription stops Duplicated chromosomes condense Nucleolus disappears Nuclear envelope disappears Chromosomes in cytosol G2 Interphase G1

SEM of prophase chromosome The coiled loops making up the chromosome consist of DNA wrapped around histone proteins, and then coiled together tightly to form the two sister chromatids http://cellbio.utmb.edu/cellbio/Nucchr2.jpg

Artificially dyed SEM of the human prophase chromosomes The human karyotype shows 46 (23 pairs) of chromosomes http://www.thednastore.com/images/mousepads/mouse2.jpg

An organized karyotype of a dividing cell from a female human A SEM image of the male human’s Y chromosome http://employees.csbsju.edu/hjakubowski/classes/SrSemMedEthics/Human%20Genome%20Project/chromosomes2.gif Compare Fig. 12.6 Pg. 252

The male sex chromosome combination: one X chromosome and one Y chromosome http://www.exitmundi.nl/xy.gif

GENES ON THE Y CHROMOSOME Adapted from http://teachers.oregon.k12.wi.us/cowan/Images/Y%20chromosome%20genes.JPG 11.32 11.31 11.2 11.1 P 11.21 11.22 11.23 12 Q GENES ON THE Y CHROMOSOME Testis Determining Factor (TDF) Gadgetry (MAC-locus) Channel flipping (FLP) Catching and throwing (BLZ-1) Self-confidence (BLZ-2) [unlinked to ability] Ability to remember and tell jokes (GOT-1) Sports page affinity (BUD-E) Addiction to death and destruction movies (T-2) Air guitar behavior (RIF) Aircraft identification memory (DC10) Youth fascination with Arachnida, Reptilia (MOM-4U) Spitting behavior (P2E) Reading on the john (SIT) Inability to express affection over the phone (ME-2) Selective hearing loss (HUH?) Lack of recall after dates (OOPS) The x-chromosome has 1000 genes critical to both males and females. The y-chromosome has 86 genes for only 23 different proteins. SRY is the gene modifying early development to convert the female body into a male. The other 85 are male-specific genes dealing with spermatogenesis or sperm function. Inherited from father to son, the sequences found on this chromosome can show genealogy of humans OBVIOUS SPOOF!

Note: the location of haplogroups on earth are still indicative of what are believed to be ancient migration routes of Homo sapiens. http://www.jewsandjoes.com/images/FTDNA-Migration-Map.jpg

Mitosis = PMAT Mitosis = PMAT early late ------Prophase--------- Metaphase Mitosis = PMAT Mitosis = PMAT Metaphase: Spindle microtubules form at poles Spindle fibers from each pole attach to centromeres Spindle fibers push chromosomes to equatorial plane G2 Interphase G1

Mitosis = PMAT early late ------Prophase--------- Metaphase Anaphase: Spindle microtubules shorten probably by depolymerization at ends Centromeres break down, freeing sister chromatids Sister chromatids are pulled to opposite poles G2 Interphase G1 Anaphase

Mitosis = PMAT early late ------Prophase--------- Metaphase late early Nuclear envelope reappears Chromosomes decondense Transcription resumes late early G2 Interphase G1 cell plate cytokinesis Anaphase Telophase

Mitosis = PMAT early late ------Prophase--------- Metaphase late early G2 Interphase G1 cell plate cytokinesis Anaphase Telophase

Can you identify the phases of the cell cycle? Mitosis in the African Blood Lily (Scadoxus multiflorus) ©1996 Norton Presentation Maker, W. W. Norton & Company Compare Fig. 11.0 Pg. 231 Can you identify the phases of the cell cycle? http://publications.nigms.nih.gov/insidethecell/images/ch4_mitosisstages.jpg

Can you identify the phases of the cell cycle shown here? Animal mitosis: Frog heart endothelium ©1996 Norton Presentation Maker, W. W. Norton & Company Can you identify the phases of the cell cycle shown here? Compare Fig. 11.0 Pg. 231

Different modes of cytokinesis among eukaryotes Animal cell furrowing phycoplast Algal cell Plant cell phragmoplast budding Fungal cell

Cytokinesis: Furrowing cleavage in a frog zygote ©1996 Norton Presentation Maker, W. W. Norton & Company

Saccharomyces: yeast from kingdom Fungi Mitosis nearly complete Cytokinesis via extrusion: budding! ? ? http://www.jhu.edu/iic/Yeast_1.png

Cytokinesis A phragmoplast developing between two cells of root meristem in corn (Zea mays) This potassium permanganate preparation for TEM shows membranes almost exclusively, so cytoplasm looks “simple” as do mitochondria. Note: nice Golgi (dictyosomes)! ©1996 Norton Presentation Maker, W. W. Norton & Company