Chapter 7 Groups and teams

Lecture outline Foundations of work groups Work-group inputs Group size Work-group processes Communication (influences and skills) Task forces and teams (promoting innovation) Page 238

Foundations of work groups What is a group? Two or more interdependent individuals interacting and influencing each other in collective pursuit of a common goal. Differentiated from a simple gathering of people. Strangers leaving by the same door at a theatre are not a group–they are not interdependent, nor are they interacting and influencing each other collectively or trying to reach the same goal. Teamwork happens when groups work together efficiently and effectively to reach organisational goals. Although groups have always been central to organisations, they are seen increasingly as important assets. Further discussion can be found on page 240.

Foundations of work groups Types of work groups: Formal - Group officially created by an organisation for a specific purpose Informal - Group established by employees (not the organisation) to serve members’ interests or social needs Pages 240-2

Foundations of work groups Formal groups Groups officially created by an organisation for a specific purpose. Command/functional group - Manager and subordinates Task groups - Permanent - Temporary Each organisation work unit (manager and subordinates) is a command group that is linked to higher (in the hierarchy) command groups–in this way, supervisors link lower-level and higher-level groups. A task group is a formal group set up to supplement or replace work normally undertaken by a command group. Task groups can be permanent or temporary. Further discussion can be found on pages 240-1.

Foundations of work groups Informal groups Groups established by employees (not the organisation) to serve members’ interests or social needs. Interest groups Friendship groups An interest group is an informal group set up to help employees with common concerns. Such concerns can have a wide base, for example sport or a desire to have the firm change its policy. A friendship group is an informal group existing because of employee social needs. The groups stem from mutual attraction based on common characteristics such as similar work, backgrounds and/or values. Further discussion can be found on pages 241-2.

Foundations of work groups How informal groups develop: Formal groups Required activities Required interactions Required sentiments Organisational Given sentiments outputs (e.g. productivity, satisfaction) Informal groups Emergent activities Emergent interactions Emergent sentiments See Figure 7.3 on page 243.

Foundations of work groups How work groups operate: Outcomes Performance Need satisfaction Future work group compatibility Inputs Group composition Member roles Group size Processes Group norms Cohesiveness Development Several factors affect teamwork and formal work groups’ effectiveness. In analysing these, it helps to see groups as systems using inputs, engaging in many processes or transformations, and producing outcomes. Note that important outcomes are not just group performance measures, such as quantity, quality and costs, but member satisfaction too. Further discussion can be found on page 243. Figure 7.4 A general model of work group behaviour

Work-group inputs Work group composition Member characteristics Two crucial selection factors: Member characteristics Task-relevant skills Appropriate interpersonal skills Contribution to group diversity Attraction to the group Identification of reason for wanting to join group as being appropriate to group task As work-group composition has a bearing on a group’s ultimate success, managers must consider carefully who will be part of a group. Two crucial selection factors are potential member characteristics and reasons for their attraction to the group. Further discussion can be found on pages 243-4.

Work-group inputs Member roles Group-task roles Initiator-contributor Information seeker Information giver Coordinator Orienter Energiser Roles that help a group develop and accomplish its goals. Further discussion can be found on pages 244-245.

Work-group inputs Member roles (contd) Group maintenance roles Encourager Harmoniser Gatekeeper Standard setter Group observer Follower These are roles not directly addressing a task itself but, instead, helping foster group unity, positive interpersonal relations among group members and development of their ability to work effectively together. Further discussion can be found on page 245.

Work-group inputs Member roles (contd) Self-oriented roles Aggressor Blocker Recognition seeker Dominator These are roles related to the personal needs of group members and often negatively influence group effectiveness. Further discussion can be found on page 245.

Group size Size and group interaction Size and performance - Group size affects interaction Size and performance - Social loafing - Individualism - Collectivism Pages 245-7

Work-group processes As group members work, some energy goes into group development and operations. This is diverted from the task, and is known as process loss, as it is lost energy which could have been devoted to the task. Some groups accomplish more than others, despite the similarity in inputs. The reason for this lies, in part, in group processes, the dynamic inner workings of the group. As group members work, some energy goes into group development and operations. This is diverted from the task and is known as process loss, as it is energy which could have been devoted to the task. Process loss is inevitable, given group members’ normal interdependence. Further discussion can be found on page 247.

Work-group processes Positive synergy Negative synergy Force resulting when combined gains are greater than group-process losses Negative synergy Force resulting when group-process losses are greater than gains achieved from combining the forces of the group Page 247

Work-group processes Group norms Explicit statements Critical events Expected behaviours sanctioned by a group that regulate and foster uniform member behaviour Explicit statements Critical events Primacy Carryover behaviours For a behaviour to be a norm, members must see it as expected for group membership. Work groups do not use norms to regulate all behaviour. Rather they develop and enforce norms relating to central matters. For example, group norms develop about production processes. These norms relate to quality and quantity as well as how the job is done. Further discussion can be found on pages 247-9.

Work-group processes Group cohesiveness Degree to which members are attracted to a group, are motivated to remain in it, and are mutually influenced by one another Page 249

Work-group processes Group cohesiveness Consequences of group cohesion Organisational citizenship behaviours Determinants of group cohesiveness - Similar attitudes and values - Mutual understandings - External threats - Size of group Pages 249-250

Work-group processes Group development Forming Storming Norming Assess task and interaction rules Storming Locate and resolve differences Norming Develop consensus re: norms, task, relationships Performing Norms support teamwork; energy applied to task Adjourning Preparation for disengagement New groups, such as work units, committees and task forces form constantly. Even established groups change as members leave and new ones join. It is argued that groups pass through fairly predictable development stages. New groups may progress through these phases but, if membership changes, development may briefly regress to earlier stages. Further discussion can be found on pages 250-2.

Group development Forming Storming Norming Performing Adjourning See Figure 7.7 on page 251. Performing Adjourning

Communication Non-verbal communication Kinesic behaviour (body language) Proxemics (proximity and space) Paralanguage (vocal aspects) Object language (use of objects to communicate) Page 252

Communication Components of communication: Sender Encoding Message Medium Receiver Decoding Noise Feedback Page 253

Communication Sender/receiver Encoding message Medium Decoding message Noise Noise Encoding message Feedback Medium Feedback As well as the normal communication difficulties of encoding, decoding, noise and subordinate reluctance to give negative information, situational stresses may cause communication breakdown. Further discussion can be found on page 253. Decoding message Noise Noise Sender/receiver

Individual communication and interpersonal processes Perceptual processes Attribution processes Semantics Communication skills Page 254

Perceptual processes Three stages of perception: Selecting Organising Filtering of stimuli so that only some information gets our attention Organising Patterning of information to match familiar patterns Interpreting Giving meaning to selected and organised information Page 254

Perceptual processes Distortions: Stereotyping Tendency to attribute characteristics to an individual on the basis of an assessment of the group to which they belong Halo effect Tendency to use a general impression based on one or a few characteristics of an individual Page 254

Perceptual processes Distortions (contd): Projection Tendency of an individual to assume others share their thoughts, feelings and characteristics Perceptual defence Tendency to block out or distort information one finds threatening Page 254

Attribution process Fundamental attribution error Self-serving bias Attribution theory attempts to explain how individuals make judgments or attributions about the cause of another’s, or their own, behaviour. Fundamental attribution error Tendency to underestimate situational influences and to overestimate dispositional influences Self-serving bias Claiming responsibility for our successes and blaming others for our failures Attribution theory is one way to understand how perceptions influence managerial communication and interpersonal processes. It explains how people make judgments or attributions about causes of the behaviour of another or themselves. These judgments form a basis for later actions. Further discussion can be found on page 254.

Semantics Semantic net Semantic blocks Network of words and word meanings a given individual has available for recall Semantic blocks Blockages or communication difficulties arising from word choices Words are symbols, so their meanings differ for everyone. Semantics is the study of meanings and word choice. Within organisations, a common cause of semantic blocks is the use of professional jargon, or language related to a specific profession but unfamiliar to outsiders. Further discussion can be found on pages 254-5.

Communication skills Interpersonal communication skills Listening skills Active listening Feedback - Giving and receiving - Positive and negative Page 255

Group communication networks Pattern of information flow among task-group members Centralised networks Decentralised networks When tasks need several people’s input, managers must look at the communication network, or the information flow patterns among task group members. Further discussion can be found on pages 255-256. (See Figure 7.9 on page 256.)

Promoting innovation: using task forces and teams Temporary task group formed to recommend on a specific issue. - May be called ad hoc or temporary committee Team Temporary or ongoing task group with members charged to work together to identify problems, identify approach and implement necessary actions. - May be entrepreneurial, self-managing, virtual Groups are used when organisations can benefit from the experience and ideas of two or more people. Group efforts are increasingly tapped when creativity and innovation are needed for organisational success. Further discussion can be found on pages 259-260.

Teams Entrepreneurial team Group of individuals with diverse expertise and backgrounds brought together to develop and implement innovative ideas aimed to create new products or services or significantly improve existing ones. Page 260

Teams Self-managing team Work group with responsibility for a task area without supervision, and given authority to influence and control group membership and behaviour. Page 260

Teams Virtual team Virtual teams require: Physically dispersed work group using information technology as a means to interact, but rarely, if ever, meeting physically. Virtual teams require: Appropriate reward systems Continual training Clear team processes Strong technological support High level, cultural diversity and trust Leaders modelling technology use and high performance Virtual teams comprise members who rarely, if ever, meet, instead interacting through different means of technology including phones, faxes, email, computer networks and video conferencing. Global organisations with widely dispersed activities are finding virtual teams increasingly important as knowledge becomes further specialised. Further discussion can be found on pages 260-1.

Lecture summary Foundations of work groups Work-group inputs Formal Informal Work-group inputs Composition Roles Group size Page 264

Lecture summary Work-group processes Communication Positive/negative synergy Norms Cohesiveness Development Communication Verbal, non verbal Components Perceptions and feedback Page 264

Lecture summary Communication networks Centralised, decentralised Promoting creativity and innovation Task forces (temporary) Teams (temporary or permanent) Entrepreneurial Self-managing Page 264