Chapter 2 Goals Page 33 Students will be able to: Define terms that apply to the structural organization of the body Identify the body cavities & recognize the organs contained within those cavities Locate & identify the anatomic & clinical divisions of the abdomen Locate & name the anatomic divisions of the back Become acquainted with terms that describe positions, directions, & planes of the body Identify the meanings for new word elements & use them to understand medical terms.

Terms Pertaining to the Body as a Whole Chapter 2 Pages 33 – 74

Structural Organization of the Body Page 34 Structural Organization of the Body Cells = the smallest living unit Cells The cell is the fundamental unit of all living things (animal or plant). Cells are everywhere in the human body – every tissue, every organ is made up of these individual units. Similarity in Cells Cells contain a gelatinous substance composed of water, protein, sugar, acids, fats, & various materials.

Structural Organization of the Body: Cont. Page 35 Structural Organization of the Body: Cont. Cell membrane: not only surrounds & protects the cell but also regulates what passes into & out of the cells. Nucleus: controls the operation of the cell. It directs cell division & determines the structure & function of the cell Chromosomes: rod like-structures within the nucleus that contains thousands of genes. Gene: contains a chemical called DNA. DNA: regulates the activities of the cell according to its sequence. Chromosomes: All human body cells – except for the sex cells, the egg & the sperm (short for spermatozoon) – contain 23 pairs of chromosomes. Each sperm & egg cell have only 23 unpaired chromosomes. After egg & a sperm cell unite to form the embryo, each cell of the embryo then has 46 chromosomes (23 pairs) DNA: resembles a series of recipes in code. This code, when passed out of the nucleus to the rest of the cell, directs the activities of the cell, such as cell division & synthesis of proteins.

Structural Organization of the Body: Cont. Pages 34 – 35 Structural Organization of the Body: Cont. Karyotype: a test to identify & evaluate the size, shape, & number of chromosomes in a sample of body cells. Cytoplasm: includes all of the material outside the nucleus & enclosed by the cells membrane. Mitochondria (miniature “power plants”): structures in the cytoplasm that provide the principal source of energy for the cell. Catabolism: the process that occurs in mitochondria. Karyotype: Extra or missing chromosomes, or abnormal positions of chromosome pieces, can cause problems with a person's growth, development, and body functions Cytoplasm: In carries on the work of the cell; contains specialized apparatus apparatus to supply the chemical needs of the cell.

Structural Organization of the Body: Cont. Pages 35 – 36 Structural Organization of the Body: Cont. Endoplasmic reticulum: Network of canals within the cytoplasm of the cell. Contain ribosomes. Ribosomes: builds long chains of protein Anabolism: process of building large proteins from small protein pieces called amino acids. Metabolism: Total chemical process in a cell. It includes catabolism & anabolism.

Structural Organization of the Body: Cont. Page 38 Structural Organization of the Body: Cont. Differences in Cells Cells are specialized to carry out their individual functions. muscle cell = long & slender & contains fibers that aid in contracting & relaxing epithelial cell = square & flat to provide protection nerve cell = long & have various fibrous extensions that aid in carrying impulses fat cell = contains large, empty spaces for fat storage. epithelial cell (a lining & skin cell)

Structural Organization of the Body: Cont. Pages 38 – 39 Structural Organization of the Body: Cont. Tissues Tissue = a group of similar cells working together to do a specific job. Histologist = a scientist who specializes in the study of tissues. Several different types of tissue are recognized. Tissues of the same type may be located in various regions of the body.

Structural Organization of the Body: Cont. Pages 38 – 39 Structural Organization of the Body: Cont. Epithelial Tissue Located all over the body, forms the linings of internal organs, & the outer surface of the skin covering the body. Lines exocrine & endocrine glands & is responsible for the secretions they produce. Connective Tissue Examples are adipose (fat) tissue, cartilage (elastic, fibrous tissue attached to the bones) bone, & blood. Epithelial Tissue: The term epithelial originally referred to as the tissue on the breast nipple. Now it describes all tissue that covers the outside of the body & lines the inner surface of internal organs.

Structural Organization of the Body: Cont. Pages 38 – 39 Structural Organization of the Body: Cont. Muscle Tissue Voluntary = found in arms & legs & parts of the body where movement is under conscious control. Involuntary = found in the heart & digestive system, & in other organs, allows movement that is not under conscious control. Cardiac = found only in the heart. Nerve Tissue Nerve tissue conducts impulses all over the body. Muscle Tissue: Contractions of this muscle type can be seen as a beating heart in an ultrasound scan of a 6-week-old fetus.

Structural Organization of the Body: Cont. Page 40 Structural Organization of the Body: Cont. Organs Different types of tissue combine to form an organ. For example, an organ such as the stomach is composed of muscle tissue, nerve tissue, & glandular epithelial tissue viscera = the medical term for internal organs (singular: viscus). Examples of abdominal viscera (organs located in the abdomen) are the liver, stomach, intestines, pancreas, spleen, & gallbladder.

Structural Organization of the Body: Cont. Page 40 Structural Organization of the Body: Cont. Systems Systems are groups of organs working together to perform complex functions. System Organs Digestive Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, intestine, liver, gallbladder, pancreas Urinary or Excretory Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra Respiratory Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchial tubes, lungs

Structural Organization of the Body: Cont. Page 40 Structural Organization of the Body: Cont. System Organs Endocrine Thyroid gland, pituitary gland, sex glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, parathyroid glands Nervous Brain, spinal cord, nerves, & collections of nerves Circulatory Heart, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels & nodes, spleen, thymus glands Skin & Sense organs Skin, hair, nails, sweat glands, & sebaceous glands, eye, ear, nose, & tongue

Structural Organization of the Body: Cont. Page 40 Structural Organization of the Body: Cont. System Organs Reproductive Female: Ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, mamary glands Male: Testes & associated tubes, urethra, penis, prostate gland Musculoskeletal Muscles, bones, & joints

Structural Organization of the Body: Cont. Page 40 Structural Organization of the Body: Cont. Body Cavities Body cavity is a space within the body that contains internal organs Cavity Organs Cranial Brain, pituitary gland Pelvic Portions of the small & larges intestines, rectum, urinary bladder, unrethra, & ureters; uterus & vagina in the female Spinal Nerves of the spinal cord.

Structural Organization of the Body: Cont. Page 40 Structural Organization of the Body: Cont. Cavity Organs Thoracic Lungs, heart, esophagus, trachea, bronchial tubes, thymus gland, aorta The thoracic cavity is divided into two smaller cavities: Pleural cavity - space surrounding each lung. The pleura is a double memebran that surrounds the lungs & protects them. If the pleura is inflamed, the pleural cavity may fill with fluid. Mediastinum - centrally located space outside of and between the lungs. It contains the heart, aorta, trachea, esophagus, thymus gland, bronchial tubes, & many lymph nodes.

Structural Organization of the Body: Cont. Page 40 Structural Organization of the Body: Cont. Cavity Organs Abdominal The peritoneum is the double-folded membrane surrounding the abdominal cavity. It attaches the abdominal organs to the abdominal muscles & surrounding each organ to hold it in place. The kidneys are two bean-shaped organs situated behind the abdominal cavity on either side of the backbone. Also contains the stomach, small & large intestines, spleen, pancreas, liver, & gallbladder. The diaphragm divides the abdominal & thoracic cavities.

Abdominopelvic Regions & Quadrants Page 48 Abdominopelvic Regions & Quadrants Regions Right hypochondriac regions – right upper region below the rib cage Left hypochondriac regions – Left upper region below the rib cage Epigastric region = region above the stomach Right lumbar region = right middle region near the waist Left lumbar region = Left middle region near the waist

Abdominopelvic Regions & Quadrants: Cont. Page 48 Abdominopelvic Regions & Quadrants: Cont. Umbilical region = region of the navel or umbilicus Right inguinal region = right lower region near the groin, which is the are where the legs join the trunk of the body. This region also is know as the right iliac region because it lies near the ilium Left inguinal region = left lower region near the groin. Also is know as the Left iliac region Hypogastric region = middle lower region below the umbilical region.

Abdominopelvic Regions & Quadrants: Cont. Page 48 Abdominopelvic Regions & Quadrants: Cont.

Abdominopelvic Regions & Quadrants: Cont. Page 49 Abdominopelvic Regions & Quadrants: Cont. Quadrants Right upper quadrant (RUQ) – contains the liver (right lobe), gallbladder, part of the pancreas, parts of the small & large intestines Left upper quadrant (LUQ) – contains the liver (left lobe), stomach, spleen, part of the pancreas, parts of the small & large intestines Right lower quadrant (RLQ) – contains parts of the small & large intestines, right ovary, right fallopian tube, appendix, right ureter

Abdominopelvic Regions & Quadrants: Cont. Page 49 Abdominopelvic Regions & Quadrants: Cont. Left lower quadrant (LLQ) – contains parts of the small & large intestines, left ovary, left fallopian tube, left ureter

Divisions of the Back (Spinal Column) Page 50 Divisions of the Back (Spinal Column) The spinal column is composed of a series of bones that extend from the neck to the tailbone. Each bone is a vertebra (plural: vertebrae) Division of the Back Abbreviation Location Cervical C Neck region. There are seven cervical vertebrae (C1 to C7) Thoracic T Chest region. There are 12 thoracic vertebrae (T1 to T12)

Divisions of the Back (Spinal Column): Cont. Page 50 Divisions of the Back (Spinal Column): Cont. Division of the Back Abbreviation Location Lumbar L Loin (waist) or flank region (between the ribs & the hip bone) There are five lumbar vertebrae (L1 to L5) Sacral S Five bones (S1 to S5) are fused to from one bone, the sacrum Coccygeal   The coccyx (tailbone) is a small bone composed of four fused pieces.

Divisions of the Back (Spinal Column): Cont. Page 51 Divisions of the Back (Spinal Column): Cont. spinal column is bone tissue spinal cord is nervous tissue Intervertebral spaces = The spaces between the vertebrae (identified according to the two vertebrae between which they occur) Disk (disc) = a small pad within the space & between vertebrae. The disk, composed of water & cartilage, is a shock absorber. A disk may move out of place & put pressure on a nerve. This “slipped disk” can cause pain in an area of the body affected by the nerve. – for example the L5-S1 space is between the fifth lumbar vertebra & the first sacral vertebra.

Positional & Directional Terms Page 52 Positional & Directional Terms Location Relationship Anterior (Ventral) Front side of the body The forehead is on the anterior side of the body Posterior (Dorsal) Back side of the body The back of the head is posterior to the face Inferior Below another structure The feet are at the inferior part of the body Superior Above another structure The head lies superior to the neck

Positional & Directional Terms Page 52 Positional & Directional Terms Location Relationship Deep Away from the surface The stab wound penetrated deep into the abdomen Superficial On the surface Superficial veins can be viewed through the skin

Positional & Directional Terms Page 52 Positional & Directional Terms Location Relationship Proximal Near the point of attachment to the trunk or near the beginning of the structure The proximal end of the thigh bone joins with the hip socket Distal Far from the point of attachment to the trunk of far from the beginning of a structure At its distal end, the femur joins with the knee

Positional & Directional Terms Page 52 Positional & Directional Terms Location Relationship Medial Pertaining to the middle, or nearer the medial plane of the body When in the anatomic position (palsms of the hands facing outward), the fifth (little) finger is medial Lateral Pertaining to the side When in anatomic position, the thumb is lateral

Positional & Directional Terms Page 52 Positional & Directional Terms Location Relationship Supine lying on the back The patient lies supine during an examination of the abdomen & in females, during a pelvic exam Prone Lying on the belly The backbones are examined with the patient in a prone position.

Planes of the Body Page 52 Plane Location Frontal (coronal) Plane Vertical plane dividing the body or structure into anterior & posterior portions. A common chest x-ray veiw is PA (posteroanterior - veiw from back to from) view, which is in the frontal (coronal) plane Sagittal (lateral) Plane Legthwise vertical plane dividing the body or structure into right & left sides. The midsagittal plane divides the body into right & lefts halves. A lateral (side-to-side) chest x-ray film is taken in the sagittal plane

Transverse (axial) Plane Page 52 Planes of the Body Plane Location Transverse (axial) Plane Horizontal (cross-sectional) plane running across the body parallel to the ground. This cross-sectional plane divides the body or structure into upper & lower portions. A CT (computed tomography) scan is one of a series of x-ray pictures taken in the transverse (axial or cross-sectional) plane.