Memory!!

Lecture Overview What is Memory? Forgetting Problems with Memory Memory Improvement

Memory Memory is the ability to code, store and retrieve information Memory involves coding the input of the senses (visual, auditory) Memory is rarely perfect Forgetting refers to memory failure

Three Stages of Memory Sensory Memory is a brief representation of a stimulus while being processed in the sensory system Short-Term Memory (STM) is working memory Limited capacity (7 items) Duration is about 30 seconds Long-Term Memory (LTM) has a large capacity and long duration

Overview of Memory Model

Long-Term Memory Information transferred from STM to LTM is coded into categories and stored in terms of meaning REM sleep may play a key role in categorizing new items within LTM Memories retrieved from LTM are not an exact replica of the original event Memories are reconstructed and can be altered during the retrieval process

STM: Working Memory

Memory as a Computer © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Parallel Distributed Processing PDP model of memory recognizes that our brain processes multiple operations and involves a vast network of processing units that operate simultaneously. PDP model suggests that our memory works more like a telephone company, than like a computer. © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Integrating Approaches © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Varieties of LTM © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Organization of LTM Items in LTM are organized in categories that form a hierarchy with multiple paths (direct and indirect) to each item Sometimes the cues required to recall an item are not sufficient Tip-of the tongue phenomenon: person can’t easily recall the item, but shows some recall for its characteristics (“…it begins with the letter ….”) © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Memory Measures Recognition is when a specific cue is matched against LTM Recall is when a general cue is used to search memory E.g. define the term “statistical significance” Relearning refers to a situation in which a person learns material a second time. © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Biological Perspective Long-term Potentiation - As a response is learned, specific neural pathways are established that become progressively more excitable and responsive Synapses are strengthened by stimulation of dendrites to grow more spines Ability of a neuron to release its neurotransmitters can be increased or decreased © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Flashbulb Memories Where were you when you first heard: What were you doing when you heard about 9/11? Where were your parents when JFK was shot? What were you doing when you first heard about Katrina? © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Brain Areas Related to Memory © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Forgetting Forgetting is the inability to recall previously learned information Forgetting rate is steep just after learning and then becomes a gradual loss of recall © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve This graph dramatizes how rapidly nonsense syllables are forgotten, especially in the first few hours after learning. © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Study Strategies Distributed practice refers to spacing learning periods in contrast to massed practice in which learning is “crammed” into a single session Distributed practice leads to better retention © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Serial Position Effect Remembering information at the beginning and end of a list better than material in the middle © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Theories of Forgetting Decay theory: memory trace fades with time Interference theory argues that information competes for retrieval Proactive interference: old information interferes with recall of new information Retroactive interference: new information interferes with recall of old information Motivated forgetting: involves the loss of painful memories Encoding failure: may contribute to information never being encoded from STM to LTM and thus forgotten. Retrieval failure: the information is still within LTM, but cannot be recalled because the retrieval cue is absent © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Amnesia Amnesia is forgetting produced by brain injury or trauma Retrograde amnesia refers to problems with recall of information prior to a trauma Anterograde amnesia refers to problems with recall of information after a trauma Anterograde amnesia Retrograde amnesia Point of Trauma © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Anatomy of Memory Bilateral damage to the hippocampus results in anterograde amnesia (Patient H.M.) © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Patient H.M. Patient H.M. suffered from chronic brain seizures In the 1950’s, surgeons removed portions of his hippocampus in order to reduce the seizures Since the surgery, Patient H.M. shows chronic anterograde amnesia He has normal STM He has normal recall for material learned prior to the surgery Patient H.M. has learned very little since the surgery Patient H.M. would have no idea of the significance of: Watergate The Challenger explosion The death of Princess Diana © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Issues in Memory Memory recall may involve reconstruction and thus may not be accurate Reasons for inaccuracy of memory: Source amnesia: attribution of a memory to the wrong source (e.g. a dream is recalled as an actual event) Sleeper effect: a piece of information from an unreliable source is initially discounted, but is recalled after the source has been forgotten © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Eyewitness Testimony Primarily because of the constructive nature of memory, the reliability of eyewitness testimony is questioned. © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Repressed Memories The area of repressed memories is a hotly contested debate The reliability of repressed memories is called into question due to: the constructive element of memory source amnesia the sleeper effect © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Memory Strategies Mnemonic devices are strategies to improve memory by organizing information Method of Loci: ideas are associated with a place or part of a building Peg-Word system: peg words are associated with ideas (e.g. “one is a bun”) Word Associations: verbal associations are created for items to be learned © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Improving memory Use rehearsal techniques Improve organization Counteract the serial position effect Avoid massed practice Manage time Use the encoding specificity principle Employ self-monitoring and overlearning Use mnemonic devices © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E