Types of Fallacies Logical Fallacies (errors in reasoning), Emotional Fallacies (replacing logic with emotional manipulation), Rhetorical Fallacies (sidestepping logic and language)

What is a fallacy? A fallacy is an error in reasoning. Including fallacies in your writing will weaken your argument.

Why is it important to know about logical fallacies? If you know about fallacies, and the different kinds of logical fallacies, you will be able to do two things. You will be able to improve your own argument writing because you will be able to stay away from including logical fallacies. You will be able to recognize logical fallacies in other people’s writings.

Logical Fallacies A logical fallacy is an element of an argument that is flawed If spotted one can essentially render an entire line of reasoning invalid.

Types of common fallacies Hasty Generalizations Post Hoc Ad Populum “Argument” from outrage Ad misericordiam, or appeal to pity Ad baculum, or scare tactics Straw man Ad hominem, genetic fallacy Red herring / smokescreen Slippery slope Either / or (or false dilemma)

Hasty Generalization An inference drawn from insufficient evidence Ex: My new Toyota broke down, so all Toyotas must be poorly made.

Post Hoc / Faulty Causality Incorrect assumption that because one event or action follows another, the first caused the second. This correlation does not imply causation EX: I dyed my hair red last week. This week, three other girls showed up at school with freshly dyed red hair. They must have made the change because they liked my hair.

Ad Populum A fallacious argument that appeals to the popularity of the claim as a reason to accept it. In Latin, ad populum means, “appeal to the people.” EX: Most people think that Gatorade is better than Powerade, so Gatorade is the superior sports beverage. While the claim may be true, all of the supporting evidence relies in its popularity, not on researched data.

Argument from outrage Consists in dismissing a claim as possible or as true on the basis of the critic of the claim expressing outrage or anger at the claim. The critic may claim to have been offended or insulted by the claim. The outrage may also be directed against the person or group making the claim.

Ad Misericordiam, or appeal to pity Pathos- based argument to elicit feelings of sorrow or to encourage rooting for the underdog. Ex: A story of a lovable out-of-luck boxer on a losing streak. In 2012, ASPCA’s CEO, Ed Sayres was paid a salary of $566,000.

Ad Baculum, or scare tactics Using fear to sway people by exaggerating possible dangers well beyond their statistical likelihood. EX: Politicians from both parties often claim that their opponent will ruin the quality of life of middle class voters.

Straw Man This logical fallacy happens when someone oversimplifies or misrepresents another person’s argument in order to make it easier to attack. EX: Person 1: I like the rain Person 2: Yes, but if it is never sunny out, people will suffer from Vitamin D deficiency, all of our crops will die, and we will die of starvation. This is a straw man argument because Person 2 misrepresents Person 1’s argument to make it easier to attack. Person 1 never said that it shouldn’t ever be sunny.

Ad Hominem / genetic fallacy In Latin, this means “to the man.” Ad Hominem occurs when an opponent attacks a person’s character rather than the quality of his or her idea. EX: Political campaigns frequently use ad hominem attacks on rival candidates instead of staying focused on the real issues at hand.

Red Herring / Smokescreen This is a logical fallacy that is a diversion tactic that leads people away from the key or real issues. To create a red herring, people will oppose arguments rather than addressing them. Leads the reader or audience to a false conclusion. EX. Energy drinks can be potentially very dangerous. However, how else are students supposed to have enough energy to study and get good grades? The highlighted portion of the argument is a red herring because it distracts the audience from the issue at hand (energy drinks can be potentially dangerous).

Slippery Slope Exaggeration of the likely consequences of an action, designed to show that a misstep today could result in a disaster in the future. EX: We can’t allow students to bring beverages into the auditorium. If we do, soon they’ll start bringing in snacks and then full meals. In no time at all, the place will be filled with trash, rats, and cockroaches. Good grief, we’d probably have to condemn the building!

Either / or (or false dilemma) Unfair oversimplification of an issue by providing only two options as a possible solution EX: