What can you remember from the course so far? When did the Crimean War take place, and during the reigns of which two tsars? Can you name one (or two) of the disastrous Russian defeats during the Crimean War? Name one economic consequence of the Crimean War. What was the name of the Treaty that declared the Black Sea a ‘neutral zone’? What nickname is Alexander II given today? What was the Russian name of the document that laid out the terms of the emancipation of the serfs, and in which year was this finalised? Name one negative consequence of emancipation for the peasants. Name one positive consequence of emancipation for Russia. Name one negative consequence of emancipation for the Tsar.

What can you remember from the course so far? When did the Crimean War take place, and during the reigns of which two tsars? 1853-1856, Nicholas I and Alexander II. Can you name one (or two) of the disastrous Russian defeats during the Crimean War? Balaclava, Inkerman. Name one economic consequence of the Crimean War. Made situation in countryside worse; disrupted Russia’s commercial ties with other countries. What was the name of the Treaty that declared the Black Sea a ‘neutral zone’? Treaty of Paris. What nickname is Alexander II given today? The Tsar Liberator. What was the Russian name of the document that laid out the terms of the emancipation of the serfs, and in which year was this finalised? Emancipation Ukase. Name one negative consequence of emancipation for the peasants. Name one positive consequence of emancipation for Russia. Name one negative consequence of emancipation for the Tsar.

Alexander II’s reforms Реформы Александра In this lesson, you will... Evaluate the success of Alexander II’s reforms, in order to test the validity of an historian’s statement about the reforms. Decide whether the reforms were more conservative or more liberal, and who benefitted the most from them (the Tsar or the Russian people).

“Russia had a long history of reforms with different outcomes “Russia had a long history of reforms with different outcomes. The reforms of Alexander II prolonged the life of the Russian empire. Although the reforms were inconsistent and eventually aborted, they increased the Russian empire’s economic and technological growth. The military reforms benefitted the Russian empire by allowing the tsar to increase the empire’s size.” Vladimir Shlapentokh, A Normal Totalitarian Society: How the Soviet Union Functioned and How it Collapsed (2001).

Reform 1: Re-organisation of the armed forces The Crimean War had highlighted the need for change. Emancipation had removed the means of conscripting serfs to the army, so a new system was needed. Dmitri Milyutin, Minister of War from 1861-81, reorganised the army to create a smaller, more professional/efficient and less expensive army. Now, service in the army could no longer be given by the courts as a punishment; the length of service was reduced from 25 years to 15; conscription was made compulsory for all classes (including nobles). Military

How successful were the military reforms? These military reforms, introduced in 1875, created a smaller but better-trained army, and reduced heavy government expenditure. Yet, although the system was fairer, some nobles found substitutes to serve in their place. The higher, officer class also remained largely composed of aristocrats. When the new military was tested in war against Turkey (1877-8), victory took much longer than expected. The Russian army was also to suffer defeat again, against the Japanese in 1904-5 and Germany in 1914-17. Military

Reform 2: Local government zemstva The changes brought about by emancipation needed to be administered to ensure that legislation was put into practice at local level. The abolition of serf owners’ rights over local people had left a void: serf-owners had been responsible for constructing local roads, providing fencing and repairing bridges. New institutions of local government also gave nobles a chance for more representation in government. Local government

Reform 2 continued: Local government zemstva Changes of 1864: A system of elected local councils was introduced, both at district and provincial levels, known as zemstva. The zemstva were elected bodies, chosen through a system of ‘electoral colleges’. Votes would be arranged in a way that allowed the nobility to dominate. Zemstva could make improvements to public services like roads, schools, public health and gaols [prisons]. Zemstva would also give poor relief. In 1870 these changes were extended to towns, where dumas (elected town councils) were set up. Local government

Reform 2 continued: Local government zemstva These reforms established a form of representative government at local level, but hopes that Alexander II would go on to grant a representative National Assembly weren’t fulfilled. The power of the zemstva and dumas remained limited: they had no control over state and local taxes, and the governing of law and order remained with the Provincial Governors (appointed by the Tsar), who could overturn their decisions. Local government

Reform 2 continued: Local government zemstva Most landowners and officials approved the changes. Landowners kept many of the positions of authority in these new organisations, which partly compensated for their loss of power over the serfs. Zemstva were valued because they were composed of men who understood the local area and its needs. However, zemstva tended to be composed of liberal-minded professional people, like doctors, lawyers, teachers and scientists: zemstva provided a forum for criticism of central government. Local government

Reform 3: New legal system Under Nicholas I, Russian law had begun to be codified. However, the serfs’ new freedom required new legislation, especially concerning property rights and contracts. Before emancipation the serf had little chance of justice: he was presumed guilty; his case was simply looked at by a judge examining written evidence, but there was no jury, lawyers or witnesses. The Minister of Justice introduced a new legal system in 1864. legal system

Reform 3 continued: New legal system The new system consisted of local courts under justices of the peace for minor offences; and district courts, judicial chambers and the Senate for more serious offences. The legal system included: The principle of equality before the law (as opposed to separate courts for different classes). Criminal cases at district level to be heard before barristers and a jury. Judges were appointed by the tsar. Court proceedings were to be open to the public. Judges to be given better training and pay (less bribery). Freedom of the Press was extended to legal reporting, which was to be recorded in a government newspaper The Russian Courier. legal system

Reform 3 continued: New legal system The new system was much fairer and less corrupt. Open courts gave lawyers the chance to criticise the government, and the use of the jury system could undermine government control. But revolutionaries were treated differently – they were dealt with under the Third Section until 1880, and still faced trial in special courts. Trial by jury was never established in Poland and other regions. legal system

Reform 4: Educational reform The abolition of serfdom increased the need for basic literacy and numeracy among peasants, as they tried to run their new private smallholdings. Liberal-minded Alexander Golovnin was Minister for Education from 1862-7, and under his direction: Universities could govern themselves, appointing their own staff (subject to Ministry of Education’s approval). In 1864, responsibility for schooling was transferred from the Church to the zemstva. Primary and secondary education was extended throughout Russia. Schools were declared ‘open to all’ regardless of class and gender (women could attend secondary school for non-vocational education from 1870). education

Reform 4 continued: Educational reform The number of primary schools rose from 8,000 in 1856 to 23,000 in 1880, and the number of children in primary education from 400,000 to over 1 million. But primary education was still restricted: the basic aim was ‘strengthening religious and moral notions and spreading basic knowledge’. At secondary level, students had a choice of study in classics or modern subjects, but these remained largely the preserve of the professional and upper classes. The number of university students rose – from 3,600 to 10,000 by the 1870s. However, this had the effect of increasing the number of radical and militant thinkers. The education reforms were considered so successful that, after 1866, it was deemed necessary to reassert government control. education

Reform 5: Censorship reform There was an initial relaxation of press censorship under Alexander. In 1863, censorship was placed under the control of the Ministry for Internal Affairs. The Ministry could stop publications and fine publishers, but the new legal system provided a fairer court system in which to challenge censorship. In 1865, the press and book publishers received a new codification of regulations. Foreign publications could be sold in Russia, with government approval. In 1865, the press was allowed to print editorials with comment on government policy for the first time. censorship

Reform 5 continued: Censorship reform These changes encouraged a growth of books, journals and newspapers on sale. But editors were still subject to some censorship – anything subversive was still censored. A growth in writing critical of the government encouraged a clamp-down in the 1870s, and by the end of Alexander’s reign censorship had become tighter again. censorship

Reform 6: Economic reform Alexander wanted to restore Russian prestige and win international respect through imperialism and military success: this depended on a boost to the Russian economy to provide funds. Mikhail von Reutern, Minister of Finance from 1862-78, produced some of Alexander’s most successful reforms: The Treasury was reformed; a new system for collecting taxes, establishing budgets and auditing government accounts was put in place. Banks and credit facilities were extended. A state bank was established in 1860, municipal banks in 1862 and a savings bank in 1869. Government subsidies were offered to enable private entrepreneurs to develop the railways. Foreign investment in Russia was encouraged. economic

Reform 6 continued: Economic reform Although slow, industrial development did happen under Alexander II. Agriculture also enjoyed a boom. Not all of this was because of government initiative, but the framework laid down by Reutern encouraged this expansion. But Russia’s economy remained comparatively weak. 66% of government revenue came from indirect taxation, which placed a big burden on the peasants. Although grain and industrial output began to increase, there were still big limitations: the domestic market was not helped by the slowness with which the railways developed. economic

church Reform 7: Church reform The Orthodox Church had a close bond with the Tsarist regime: its influence over the peasantry had been helpful to the regime as a means of controlling the masses. An 1858 report on the problems associated with rural clergy led the Minister of Internal Affairs to look into Church organisation and practice in 1862. It was important in these uncertain times after emancipation that the Church maintained the people’s respect. If the Church was open to criticism, it was feared that the authority of tsardom would be weakened. church

Reform 7 continued: Church reform Reforms were slow, and when they did come in (in 1868) the reactionary Dmitri Tolstoy had become influential. The 1868 reforms allowed talented, educated priests to gain promotion in the Church, but little was done to address the initial concern about clerical poverty or the suitability of rural priests to do their jobs. Alexander’s reign began with a relaxation of restrictions in Poland on Catholicism, the Polish language and other displays of Polish national identity. The Finnish language was also encouraged, and even Jews had some relaxation of laws relating to their activities. However, after 1863 the policies on Poland and the Jews were reversed. church

According to your graph, in which area of reform had Alexander and his government been most liberal? In which had they been most conservative? Had the reforms been intended to consolidate Alexander’s position, or to further the interests of Russia and Russian people?

“Russia had a long history of reforms with different outcomes “Russia had a long history of reforms with different outcomes. The reforms of Alexander II prolonged the life of the Russian empire. Although the reforms were inconsistent and eventually aborted, they increased the Russian empire’s economic and technological growth. The military reforms benefitted the Russian empire by allowing the tsar to increase the empire’s size.” Vladimir Shlapentokh, A Normal Totalitarian Society: How the Soviet Union Functioned and How it Collapsed (2001). What evidence do you have to support/ challenge Shlapentokh’s interpretation?

Silent discussion challenge… You have 5 minutes for a silent discussion about the statement on the piece of paper on your table. You must write points to challenge and to support the statement given to you, and you must respond to each other’s points (not just make your own). Use the knowledge you have learned this lesson to provide solid evidence for your ‘discussion’.

Good for Alexander II Conservative Progressive Good for the people Reform 1: MILITARY (Re-organisation of the armed forces) Why was it introduced? What did it involve? What were the consequences? Conservative Progressive Good for the people Reform 3: NEW LEGAL SYSTEM Why was it introduced? What did it involve? What were the consequences? Reform 2: LOCAL GOVERNMENT (Zemstva) Why was it introduced? What did it involve? What were the consequences?

Reform 4: EDUCATION Why was it introduced? What did it involve? What were the consequences? Reform 5: CENSORSHIP Why was it introduced? What did it involve? What were the consequences? Reform 6: ECONOMIC Why was it introduced? What did it involve? What were the consequences? Reform 7: CHURCH Why was it introduced? What did it involve? What were the consequences?

Homework: Complete the ‘Why did Alexander II emancipate the serfs?’ sheet: use the sources and your own research (use your textbook) to add notes to both sides of the table. Revise for a factual knowledge test next Monday on aspects of the course covered so far: Life of Alexander II. Crimean War. Emancipation of the serfs. Alexander II’s other reforms. Due: Monday 2nd October.