Rhetorical Analysis Terminology AP English Language and Composition

Definition of Rhetoric The art of persuasion and argumentation The study and practice of effective communication “Rhetoric may be defined as the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion” (Aristotle) Rhetoric is “acting on another through words” (James Moffet) “The duty and office of rhetoric is to apply reason to imagination for the better moving of the will” (Francis Bacon)

Greek term for “orator” Rhetor Greek term for “orator” Anyone who composes discourse that is intended to affect community thinking about events

Trilogy of Rhetoric Ethos: persuasive appeal based on projected character of the speaker/writer. Also refers to the speaker/writer’s credibility/authority on the topic Logos: persuasive appeal based on logic (inductive and deductive reasoning, facts, statistics, cause-effect, expert testimony, etc.) Pathos: persuasive appeal to the audience’s emotions (use of powerful words/images, sensory details, figurative language, anecdotes, religious appeals, etc.)

Allegory A text (story, speech, poem, etc.)or art that can be interpreted to reveal a hidden meaning, typically a moral or political one In the most general sense, an allegory is an extended metaphor throughout the course of a text

Analogy A comparison between two things, typically on the basis of their structure and for the purpose of explanation or clarification

To “amplify” an argument Amplification General term for all the ways in which an argument can be expanded or enriched To “amplify” an argument

Anaphora Repetition of the same word or phrase at the beginning of several successive clauses or verses

Juxtaposition of contrasting ideas in balanced phrases Antithesis Juxtaposition of contrasting ideas in balanced phrases Ex.) “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity…” (Charles Dickens in A Tale of Two Cities)

Apostrophe Address to an absent or dead person (or a non-existent character) Ex.) “O Captain, My Captain!” by Walt Whitman (address to deceased Abraham Lincoln)

Ex.) “I flee who chases me, and chase who flees me” (Ovid) Chiasmus A verbal pattern in which the second half of an expression is balanced against the first but with the parts reversed. Ex.) “I flee who chases me, and chase who flees me” (Ovid) “Fair is foul, and foul is fair” (Shakespeare, Macbeth)

Connotation vs. Denotation Connotation - The emotional implication that words may carry. Connotations may be: Private and personal, the result of individual experience Group-based (national, linguistic, ethnic) General or universal (held by all or most people) Denotation – the dictionary definition of a word

Preferred method of reasoning (more reliable) Deductive Reasoning Method of reasoning that moves from a general observation to a specific conclusion Preferred method of reasoning (more reliable)

Diatribe Bitter, abusive criticism or denunciation of a person, group, organization, idea, etc.

Didactic Writing which teaches a specific lesson or moral to provide a correct model of behavior

Straying away from the main point under discussion Digression Straying away from the main point under discussion

Usually serves as a “unifying” function Editorial “we” When the speaker/writer includes himself in a group, often as the spokesperson Usually serves as a “unifying” function

Omission of one or more words (…) Ellipsis Omission of one or more words (…)

Enumeration Listing of items/ideas in order, often by naming steps such as first, second, third, etc.

Repetition of a word or phrase at the end of several clauses Epiphora Repetition of a word or phrase at the end of several clauses Also called “epistrophe” (know both terms)

Ex.) “veal” instead of “tender dead flesh of a baby cow” Euphemism Substitution of an inoffensive term for one considered unpleasant and/or offensive Ex.) “veal” instead of “tender dead flesh of a baby cow” “Friendly fire” instead of “you killed your comrade in battle” “glistening” instead of “sweating”

Exhortation Discourse that provides advice or warning to do what is proper and required Ex.) Martin Luther King Jr.’s “I Have a Dream” speech advises the nation on how to proceed with Civil Rights acquisition

Development or full treatment of a topic with use of multiple examples Expansion Development or full treatment of a topic with use of multiple examples “Expanding” the argument

Hyperbole Extreme exaggeration Figure of speech

Inductive reasoning A form of reasoning that moves from specific observations to a general conclusion Not as reliable

A discourse that casts blame on someone or something Invective A discourse that casts blame on someone or something

Situational: when the unexpected occurs Main Types of Irony Situational: when the unexpected occurs Dramatic: when the audience knows something the characters do not Verbal: sarcasm

Loose/Cumulative Sentence A sentence that combines numerous clauses that is grammatically complete before the end (opposite of a periodic sentence). Clauses may give the appearance of being tacked on haphazardly

Using a word that is closely related to the term it replaces Metonymy Using a word that is closely related to the term it replaces Ex.) “crown” for “king” “suits” for “businessmen” Remember…metonymy, CLOSELY RELATED …synecdoche, PART OF THE WHOLE

Juxtaposition of two contradictory terms Oxymoron Comes from two Greek words meaning “sharp” and “dull,” which is itself an oxymoron Juxtaposition of two contradictory terms Ex.) “jumbo shrimp,” “original copy,” “bitter sweet,” “icy hot,” “exact estimate,” “paid volunteer”

“The swiftest traveler is he that goes afoot” (Thoreau, Walden) Paradox A statement that appears contradictory at first but then reveals a deeper truth upon examination “The swiftest traveler is he that goes afoot” (Thoreau, Walden) “War is peace” (Orwell, 1984)

Remember: Periodic sentence complete with the period A long and involved sentence which is not grammatically complete until the final word (usually builds toward an emphatic climax) Remember: Periodic sentence complete with the period

“Concession and refutation” When a rhetor anticipates an opposing argument and offers a counter-argument “Concession and refutation” Concession = recognizing that an opposing argument/viewpoint exists Essential in all successful argumentation

An individual’s account of an event or state of affairs Testimony An individual’s account of an event or state of affairs Could be expert testimony, witness testimony, personal testimony, etc.

A series of three written in parallel form Tricolon A series of three written in parallel form Ex.) “A happy life is one spent learning, earning, and yearning” (Lillian Gish)

Understatement When a rhetor deliberately makes a situation seem less important or serious than it is Ex.) “The grave’s a fine and private place, but none, I think, do there embrace.” (Andrew Marvell)

Other terms you are expected to know: Ambiguity (unclear references; open to multiple interpretations) Imagery (language that appeals to the five senses) Personification (giving human characteristics to inanimate objects) Simile and metaphor (figurative language that compares two unlike objects/ideas/etc. Simile utilizes “like” or “as”) Tone (author’s attitude) and Mood (the feeling evoked from the reader; atmosphere of the piece of literature) Alliteration (repetition of initial consonant sounds) Allusion (reference to a well-known person, place, event, etc. May be literary, historical, or Biblical) Satire (to mock or criticize someone or something in society, usually using humor) Symbolism (object holds meaning outside of its literal meaning)