Biodiversity, Species Interactions, and Population Control Chapter 5

Core Case Study: Southern Sea Otters: Are They Back from the Brink of Extinction? Habitat Hunted: early 1900s Partial recovery Why care about sea otters? Ethics Keystone species Tourism dollars

Southern Sea Otter

Video: Coral spawning

5-1 How Do Species Interact? Concept 5-1 Five types of species interactions—competition, predation, parasitism, mutualism, and commensalism—affect the resource use and population sizes of the species in an ecosystem.

Species Interact in Five Major Ways Interspecific Competition Predation Parasitism Mutualism Commensalism

Most Species Compete with One Another for Certain Resources Competition Competitive exclusion principle- no two species can occupy the same niche…. Even if they live in the same ecosystem.

Most Consumer Species Feed on Live Organisms of Other Species (1) Predators may capture prey by Walking Swimming Flying Pursuit and ambush Camouflage Chemical warfare

Most Consumer Species Feed on Live Organisms of Other Species (2) Prey may avoid capture by Camouflage Chemical warfare Warning coloration Mimicry Deceptive looks Deceptive behavior

Some Ways Prey Species Avoid Their Predators

(b) Wandering leaf insect (a) Span worm (b) Wandering leaf insect (c) Bombardier beetle (d) Foul-tasting monarch butterfly (f) Viceroy butterfly mimics monarch butterfly Figure 5.2 Some ways in which prey species avoid their predators: (a, b) camouflage, (c–e) chemical warfare, (d, e) warning coloration, (f) mimicry, (g) deceptive looks, and (h) deceptive behavior. (e) Poison dart frog (g) Hind wings of Io moth resemble eyes of a much larger animal. (h) When touched, snake caterpillar changes shape to look like head of snake. Fig. 5-2, p. 103

(b) Wandering leaf insect (a) Span worm (b) Wandering leaf insect (c) Bombardier beetle (d) Foul-tasting monarch butterfly (e) Poison dart frog (f) Viceroy butterfly mimics monarch butterfly Figure 5.2 Some ways in which prey species avoid their predators: (a, b) camouflage, (c–e) chemical warfare, (d, e) warning coloration, (f) mimicry, (g) deceptive looks, and (h) deceptive behavior. (g) Hind wings of Io moth resemble eyes of a much larger animal. (h) When touched, snake caterpillar changes shape to look like head of snake. Stepped Art Fig. 5-2, p. 103

Science Focus: Why Should We Care about Kelp Forests? Kelp forests: biologically diverse marine habitat Major threats to kelp forests Sea urchins Pollution from water run-off Global warming

Purple Sea Urchin

Predator and Prey Species Can Drive Each Other’s Evolution Intense natural selection pressures between predator and prey populations Coevolution

Coevolution: A Langohrfledermaus Bat Hunting a Moth

Some Species Feed off Other Species by Living on or in Them Parasitism Cowbird Parasite-host interaction may lead to coevolution

Parasitism: Tree with Parasitic Mistletoe, Trout with Blood-Sucking Sea Lampreys

In Some Interactions, Both Species Benefit Mutualism Nutrition and protection relationship Gut inhabitant mutualism

Mutualism: Oxpeckers Clean Rhinoceros; Anemones Protect and Feed Clownfish

(a) Oxpeckers and black rhinoceros Figure 5.5 Examples of mutualism. (a) Oxpeckers (or tickbirds) feed on parasitic ticks that infest large, thick-skinned animals such as the endangered black rhinoceros. (b) A clownfish gains protection and food by living among deadly stinging sea anemones and helps protect the anemones from some of their predators. (Oxpeckers and black rhinoceros: Joe McDonald/Tom Stack & Associates; clownfish and sea anemone: Fred Bavendam/Peter Arnold, Inc.) (a) Oxpeckers and black rhinoceros Fig. 5-5a, p. 106

(b) Clownfish and sea anemone Figure 5.5 Examples of mutualism. (a) Oxpeckers (or tickbirds) feed on parasitic ticks that infest large, thick-skinned animals such as the endangered black rhinoceros. (b) A clownfish gains protection and food by living among deadly stinging sea anemones and helps protect the anemones from some of their predators. (Oxpeckers and black rhinoceros: Joe McDonald/Tom Stack & Associates; clownfish and sea anemone: Fred Bavendam/Peter Arnold, Inc.) (b) Clownfish and sea anemone Fig. 5-5b, p. 106

In Some Interactions, One Species Benefits and the Other Is Not Harmed Commensalism Epiphytes Birds nesting in trees

Commensalism: Bromiliad Roots on Tree Trunk Without Harming Tree

Animation: Life history patterns

Animation: Capture-recapture method

Video: Kelp forest (Channel Islands)

Video: Otter feeding

Video: Salmon swimming upstream

5-2 How Can Natural Selection Reduce Competition between Species? Concept 5-2 Some species develop adaptations that allow them to reduce or avoid competition with other species for resources.

Some Species Evolve Ways to Share Resources Resource partitioning Reduce niche overlap Use shared resources at different Times Places Ways

Competing Species Can Evolve to Reduce Niche Overlap

Region of niche overlap Number of individuals Species 1 Species 2 Region of niche overlap Resource use Figure 5.7 Competing species can evolve to reduce niche overlap. The top diagram shows the overlapping niches of two competing species. The bottom diagram shows that through natural selection, the niches of the two species become separated and more specialized (narrower) as the species develop adaptations that allow them to avoid or reduce competition for the same resources. Number of individuals Species 1 Species 2 Resource use Fig. 5-7, p. 107

Sharing the Wealth: Resource Partitioning

Black-throated Green Warbler Cape May Warbler Bay-breasted Warbler Blackburnian Warbler Black-throated Green Warbler Cape May Warbler Bay-breasted Warbler Yellow-rumped Warbler Figure 5.8 Sharing the wealth: resource partitioning of five species of insect-eating warblers in the spruce forests of the U.S. state of Maine. Each species minimizes competition for food with the others by spending at least half its feeding time in a distinct portion (shaded areas) of the spruce trees, and by consuming different insect species. (After R. H. MacArthur, “Population Ecology of Some Warblers in Northeastern Coniferous Forests,” Ecology 36 (1958): 533–536.) Fig. 5-8, p. 107

Black-throated Green Warbler Cape May Warbler Bay-breasted Warbler Blackburnian Warbler Black-throated Green Warbler Cape May Warbler Bay-breasted Warbler Yellow-rumped Warbler Figure 5.8 Sharing the wealth: resource partitioning of five species of insect-eating warblers in the spruce forests of the U.S. state of Maine. Each species minimizes competition for food with the others by spending at least half its feeding time in a distinct portion (shaded areas) of the spruce trees, and by consuming different insect species. (After R. H. MacArthur, “Population Ecology of Some Warblers in Northeastern Coniferous Forests,” Ecology 36 (1958): 533–536.) Stepped Art Fig. 5-8, p. 107

Specialist Species of Honeycreepers

Insect and nectar eaters Fruit and seed eaters Insect and nectar eaters Greater Koa-finch Kuai Akialaoa Amakihi Kona Grosbeak Crested Honeycreeper Akiapolaau Figure 5.9 Specialist species of honeycreepers. Evolutionary divergence of honeycreepers into species with specialized ecological niches has reduced competition between these species. Each species has evolved a beak specialized to take advantage of certain types of food resources. Maui Parrotbill Apapane Unkown finch ancestor Fig. 5-9, p. 108

5-3 What Limits the Growth of Populations? Concept 5-3 No population can continue to grow indefinitely because of limitations on resources and because of competition among species for those resources.

Populations Have Certain Characteristics (1) Populations differ in Distribution Numbers Age structure Population dynamics

Populations Have Certain Characteristics (2) Changes in population characteristics due to: Temperature Presence of disease organisms or harmful chemicals Resource availability Arrival or disappearance of competing species

Most Populations Live Together in Clumps or Patches (1) Population distribution Clumping Uniform dispersion Random dispersion

Most Populations Live Together in Clumps or Patches (2) Why clumping? Species tend to cluster where resources are available Groups have a better chance of finding clumped resources Protects some animals from predators Packs allow some to get prey Temporary groups for mating and caring for young

Populations Can Grow, Shrink, or Remain Stable (1) Population size governed by Births Deaths Immigration Emigration Population change = (births + immigration) – (deaths + emigration)

Populations Can Grow, Shrink, or Remain Stable (2) Age structure Pre-reproductive age Reproductive age Post-reproductive age Should be able to predict population changes for the future based on age structure

No Population Can Grow Indefinitely: J-Curves and S-Curves (1) Biotic potential- capacity for growth Low High Intrinsic rate of increase (r) The rate at which a pop would grow with unlimited resources Individuals in populations with high r Reproduce early in life Have short generation times Can reproduce many times Have many offspring each time they reproduce

No Population Can Grow Indefinitely: J-Curves and S-Curves (2) Size of populations limited by Light Water Space Nutrients Exposure to too many competitors, predators or infectious diseases

No Population Can Grow Indefinitely: J-Curves and S-Curves (3) Environmental resistance- combo of all factors that limit pop. growth Carrying capacity (K)- max. pop. of a species a habitat can sustain. Exponential growth Logistic growth

Science Focus: Why Are Protected Sea Otters Making a Slow Comeback? Low biotic potential Prey for orcas Cat parasites Thorny-headed worms Toxic algae blooms PCBs and other toxins Oil spills

Population Size of Southern Sea Otters Off the Coast of So Population Size of Southern Sea Otters Off the Coast of So. California (U.S.)

No Population Can Continue to Increase in Size Indefinitely

Environmental resistance Carrying capacity (K) Population stabilizes Population size Exponential growth Figure 5.11 No population can continue to increase in size indefinitely. Exponential growth (left half of the curve) occurs when resources are not limiting and a population can grow at its intrinsic rate of increase (r) or biotic potential. Such exponential growth is converted to logistic growth, in which the growth rate decreases as the population becomes larger and faces environmental resistance. Over time, the population size stabilizes at or near the carrying capacity (K) of its environment, which results in a sigmoid (S-shaped) population growth curve. Depending on resource availability, the size of a population often fluctuates around its carrying capacity, although a population may temporarily exceed its carrying capacity and then suffer a sharp decline or crash in its numbers. See an animation based on this figure at CengageNOW. Question: What is an example of environmental resistance that humans have not been able to overcome? Biotic potential Time (t) Fig. 5-11, p. 111

Logistic Growth of a Sheep Population on the island of Tasmania, 1800–1925

Number of sheep (millions) 2.0 Population overshoots carrying capacity Carrying capacity 1.5 Population recovers and stabilizes Population runs out of resources and crashes Number of sheep (millions) 1.0 Exponential growth .5 Figure 5.12 Logistic growth of a sheep population on the island of Tasmania between 1800 and 1925. After sheep were introduced in 1800, their population grew exponentially, thanks to an ample food supply. By 1855, they had overshot the land’s carrying capacity. Their numbers then stabilized and fluctuated around a carrying capacity of about 1.6 million sheep. 1800 1825 1850 1875 1900 1925 Year Fig. 5-12, p. 111

When a Population Exceeds Its Habitat’s Carrying Capacity, Its Population Can Crash Carrying capacity: not fixed Reproductive time lag may lead to overshoot Dieback (crash) Damage may reduce area’s carrying capacity

Exponential Growth, Overshoot, and Population Crash of a Reindeer

2,000 Population overshoots carrying capacity 1,500 Population crashes Number of reindeer 1,000 500 Carrying capacity Figure 5.13 Exponential growth, overshoot, and population crash of reindeer introduced to the small Bering Sea island of St. Paul. When 26 reindeer (24 of them female) were introduced in 1910, lichens, mosses, and other food sources were plentiful. By 1935, the herd size had soared to 2,000, overshooting the island’s carrying capacity. This led to a population crash, when the herd size plummeted to only 8 reindeer by 1950. Question: Why do you think this population grew fast and crashed, unlike the sheep in Figure 5-12? 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 Year Fig. 5-13, p. 112

Species Have Different Reproductive Patterns r-Selected species, opportunists Reproduce early in life, small org., large numbers, no parenting , short life spans K-selected species, competitors Reproduce later in life, large org., small numbers, parenting, long life spans

Positions of r- and K-Selected Species on the S-Shaped Population Growth Curve

Carrying capacity K K species; experience K selection Number of individuals r species; experience r selection Figure 5.14 Positions of r-selected and K-selected species on the sigmoid (S-shaped) population growth curve. Time Fig. 5-14, p. 112

Genetic Diversity Can Affect the Size of Small Populations Founder effect- ind. Of a pop. colonize new area uninhabited Demographic bottleneck- only a few ind. Survive a catastrophe. Genetic drift- random changes in genes that can lead to unequal reproductive success. Inbreeding- ind. of a small pop. mate with one another. Minimum viable population size- an estimate of the number of ind. Needed for long term survival.

Under Some Circumstances Population Density Affects Population Size Density-dependent population controls Predation Parasitism Infectious disease Competition for resources

Several Different Types of Population Change Occur in Nature Stable Irruptive Cyclic fluctuations, boom-and-bust cycles Top-down population regulation- predation Bottom-up population regulation – scarcity of a resource. Irregular – changes in pop. no reoccuring pattern

Population Cycles for the Snowshoe Hare and Canada Lynx

Humans Are Not Exempt from Nature’s Population Controls Ireland Potato crop in 1845 Bubonic plague Fourteenth century AIDS Global epidemic

Case Study: Exploding White-Tailed Deer Population in the U.S. 1900: deer habitat destruction and uncontrolled hunting 1920s–1930s: laws to protect the deer Current population explosion for deer Lyme disease Deer-vehicle accidents Eating garden plants and shrubs Ways to control the deer population

Active Figure: Exponential growth

Animation: Logistic growth

5-4 How Do Communities and Ecosystems Respond to Changing Environmental Conditions? Concept 5-4 The structure and species composition of communities and ecosystems change in response to changing environmental conditions through a process called ecological succession.

Communities and Ecosystems Change over Time: Ecological Succession Natural ecological restoration Primary succession Secondary succession

Some Ecosystems Start from Scratch: Primary Succession No soil in a terrestrial system No bottom sediment in an aquatic system Early successional plant species, pioneer Midsuccessional plant species Late successional plant species

Primary Ecological Succession

Balsam fir, paper birch, and Jack pine, white spruce black spruce, Figure 5.16 Primary ecological succession. Over almost a thousand years, plant communities developed, starting on bare rock exposed by a retreating glacier on Isle Royal, Michigan (USA) in northern Lake Superior. The details of this process vary from one site to another. Question: What are two ways in which lichens, mosses, and plants might get started growing on bare rock? Balsam fir, paper birch, and white spruce forest community Jack pine, black spruce, and aspen Heath mat Small herbs and shrubs Lichens and mosses Exposed rocks Time Fig. 5-16, p. 116

Some Ecosystems Do Not Have to Start from Scratch: Secondary Succession (1) Some soil remains in a terrestrial system Some bottom sediment remains in an aquatic system Ecosystem has been Disturbed Removed Destroyed

Natural Ecological Restoration of Disturbed Land

Mature oak and hickory forest Young pine forest Figure 5.17 Natural ecological restoration of disturbed land. Secondary ecological succession of plant communities on an abandoned farm field in the U.S. state of North Carolina. It took 150–200 years after the farmland was abandoned for the area to become covered with a mature oak and hickory forest. A new disturbance, such as deforestation or fire, would create conditions favoring pioneer species such as annual weeds. In the absence of new disturbances, secondary succession would recur over time, but not necessarily in the same sequence shown here. Questions: Do you think the annual weeds (left) would continue to thrive in the mature forest (right)? Why or why not? See an animation based on this figure at CengageNOW. Mature oak and hickory forest Young pine forest with developing understory of oak and hickory trees Shrubs and small pine seedlings Perennial weeds and grasses Annual weeds Time Fig. 5-17, p. 117

Some Ecosystems Do Not Have to Start from Scratch: Secondary Succession (2) Primary and secondary succession Tend to increase biodiversity Increase species richness and interactions among species Primary and secondary succession can be interrupted by Fires Hurricanes Clear-cutting of forests Plowing of grasslands Invasion by nonnative species

Science Focus: How Do Species Replace One Another in Ecological Succession? Facilitation Inhibition Tolerance

Succession Doesn’t Follow a Predictable Path Traditional view Balance of nature and a climax community Current view Ever-changing mosaic of patches of vegetation Mature late-successional ecosystems State of continual disturbance and change

Living Systems Are Sustained through Constant Change Inertia, persistence Ability of a living system to survive moderate disturbances Resilience Ability of a living system to be restored through secondary succession after a moderate disturbance Tipping point