Learning and Memory MOD 14-16 - Learning MOD 22-23 – Memory Questions from Friday

Theories on learning: Behaviorism Classical Conditioning – Pavlov/Watson Operant Conditioning - Skinner Observation - Bandura

Learning Learning refers to the relatively permanent change in a subject’s behavior to a given situation brought about by his (or her) repeated experiences in that situation, provided that the behavior change cannot be explained on the basis of native (natural) response tendencies, maturation, or temporary states of the subject (for example, fatigue, drugs, etc.). Based on this definition re-go through the scenarios and decide if they are learning or not

Classical Conditioning Module 14: Classical Conditioning Classical Conditioning

A relatively permanent change in behavior caused by experience. Learning A relatively permanent change in behavior caused by experience.

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) famous for discovery of classical conditioning: learning occurs through association.

Classical Conditioning A type of learning in which a stimulus gains the power to cause a response. Form of learning by association

Stimulus - anything in the environment that one can respond to. Stimulus-Response Stimulus - anything in the environment that one can respond to. Response – any behavior or action.

Stimulus-Response Relationship

Stimulus-Response Relationship

4 Components to classical conditioning Unconditioned Stimulus (US) Unconditioned Response (UR) Conditioned Stimulus (CS) Conditioned Response (CR)

Module 14: Classical Conditioning COMPONENTS OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Unconditioned Stimulus (US) A stimulus that triggers a response reflexively and automatically. Classical conditioning cannot happen with a unconditioned stimulus.

Unconditioned Response (UR) An automatic response to the unconditioned stimulus. The relationship between the UCS and UCR must be reflexive and automatic, not learned

Conditioned Stimulus (CS) A previously neutral stimulus that, through learning, gains the power to cause a response.

Conditioned Response (CR) The response to the conditioned stimulus. Usually the same behavior as the UCR

The process of developing a learned response. Acquisition The process of developing a learned response. The subject learns a new response (CR) to a previously neutral stimulus (CS)

Extinction In classical conditioning, the diminishing of a learned response after repeated presentation of the conditioned stimulus alone. In classical conditioning, the continual presentation of the CS without the UCS

Ivan Pavlov’s Discovery Module 14: Classical Conditioning Ivan Pavlov’s Discovery

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) famous for discovery of classical conditioning: learning occurs through association.

Pavlov’s Research Apparatus

Pavlov’s Experiment

Generalization & Discrimination Generalization: Producing the same response to two similar stimuli. The more similar the substitute stimulus is to the original used in conditioning, the stronger the generalized response Discrimination: The ability to distinguish between two signals or stimuli and produce different responses. The subject learns that one stimuli predicts the UCS and the other does not.

John Watson and the Classical Conditioning of Emotions Module 14: Classical Conditioning John Watson and the Classical Conditioning of Emotions

John Watson & Behaviorism Founder of behaviorism: The theory that psychology should only study observable behaviors, not mental processes. Little Albert experiment

Little Albert 11-month-old infant Watson and Rosalie Rayner, conditioned Albert to be frightened of white rats Led to questions about experimental ethics https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xt0ucxOrPQE

Little Albert – After Conditioning

Little Albert - Generalization

Cognition and Biological Predispositions Module 14: Classical Conditioning

What effect does cognition have on learning? All mental processes associated with thinking, knowing, and remembering. What effect does cognition have on learning?

Robert Rescorla (1940- ) Developed theory that emphasized importance of cognitive processes in classical conditioning. Pointed out that subjects had to determine (think) whether the CS was a reliable predictor of the US

The Nature of Operant Conditioning Module 15: Operant Conditioning

Operant Conditioning A type of learning in which the frequency of a behavior depends on the consequence that follows that behavior. The frequency will increase if the consequence is reinforcing to the subject. The frequency will decrease if the consequence is not reinforcing to the subject.

Operant Conditioning

Module 15: Operant Conditioning The Law of Effect Module 15: Operant Conditioning

Edward Thorndike (1874-1949) Author of the law of effect, the principle that forms the basis of operant conditioning. Behaviors with favorable consequences will occur more frequently. Behaviors with unfavorable consequences will occur less frequently. Created puzzle boxes for research on cats

Designed the Skinner Box, or operant chamber B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) Behavioral psychologist who developed the theory of operant conditioning and devised ways to apply it in the real world. Designed the Skinner Box, or operant chamber

Components of Operant Conditioning Reinforcement: Positive & Negative Punishment Shaping Discrimination & Extinction

Reinforcement/Punishment Reinforcement - Any consequence that increases the future likelihood of a behavior. Punishment - Any consequence that decreases the future likelihood of a behavior. The subject determines if a consequence is reinforcing or punishing

The subject determines if a consequence is reinforcing or punishing Reinforcement - Any consequence that increases the future likelihood of a behavior. Divided into positive and negative reinforcement Positive: (Anything that increases the likelihood of a behavior) by following it with a desirable event or state (like chocolate…) Negative: (anything that increases the likelihood of a behavior) by following it with the removal or decrease of an undesirable event or state. (like getting out of prison) Punishment - Any consequence that decreases the future likelihood of a behavior. The subject determines if a consequence is reinforcing or punishing

Positive Reinforcement Anything that increases the likelihood of a behavior by following it with a desirable event or state. The subject receives something they want Will strengthen the behavior

Negative Reinforcement anything that increases the likelihood of a behavior by following it with the removal or decrease of an undesirable event or state. Something the subject doesn’t like is removed Will strengthen the behavior

Positive/Negative Reinforcement

An undesirable event following a behavior 2 Types of Punishment An undesirable event following a behavior A desirable state or event ends following a behavior

used to establish a new behaviors. Shaping Reinforcement of behaviors that are increasingly similar to the desired one; used to establish a new behaviors. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=teLoNYvOf90 Sheldon shaping penny

The ability to distinguish between two similar signals or stimuli and Discrimination The ability to distinguish between two similar signals or stimuli and produce different responses. Learning to respond to one stimuli but not to a similar stimuli

Extinction In operant conditioning, the loss of a behavior when no consequence follows it. The subject no longer responds since the reinforcement or punishment has stopped.

The Nature of Observational Learning Module 16: Observational Learning

Observational Learning Learning by observing others.

Modeling Model: The person observed in observational learning. Modeling: The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.

Observational Learning: Albert Bandura’s Experiments Module 16: Observational Learning

Albert Bandura (1925- ) Canadian-American psychologist - major figure in the study of observational learning Studies the consequences a model has on subjects Bobo Doll experiments Social learning theory

Three experimental conditions: The model was praised. Bobo Doll Experiments Children watched an adult model show aggressive behavior toward a bobo doll Three experimental conditions: The model was praised. The model was punished. The model received no consequences for the aggressive behavior.

Bobo Doll Experiments

Learning by seeing the consequences of another person’s behavior. Vicarious Learning Learning by seeing the consequences of another person’s behavior.

Modeling Requirements Bandura suggests four requirements for effective modeling to occur: Attention Retention Ability to reproduce the behavior Motivation

Observational Learning, A Biological Perspective: Mirror Neurons Module 16: Observational Learning

Mirror Neurons Brain cells located in the front of the brain that activate when a person performs certain actions or when the person observes others.

What about racism? Drs. Mamie and Kenneth Clark designed the famous 1940’s Doll Test Basis for Brown vs. Board of Education: Desegregation in schools

Memory pick up a study guide! Mod 22-23

Cognition Domain: Information processing model “I think, therefor I am”

Module Overview: Warm up Using your books look up and define Mod 22 terms: Encoding - process of getting information into the memory system. Automatic Processing - Effortful Processing – Storage -The retention of encoded information over time. Rehearsal – Retrieval - The process of getting information out of memory storage. Serial Position Effect – primacy- recency-

Information Processing Model

Automatic/Effortful Processing

Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909) German philosopher who did pioneering memory studies. Developed the forgetting curve, also called the “retention curve” or “Ebbinghaus curve”

Continuing to rehearse even after it has been memorized Overlearning Continuing to rehearse even after it has been memorized Rehearsing past the point of mastery Helps ensure information will be available even under stress

Serial Position Effect The tendency to recall the first and last items in a list more easily. Primacy effect – the ability to recall information near the beginning of a list Recency effect – the ability to recall information near the end of a list

A memory trick or technique. Mnemonic Device A memory trick or technique. “Every good boy does fine” to remember the notes on the lines of the scale “People say you could have odd lots of good years” as a way to remember how to spell “psychology”

Organizing information into meaningful units. Chunking Organizing information into meaningful units. More information can be encoded if organized into meaningful chunks.

Three distinct storage systems: Look up… (Mod 22) Sensory Memory- Short-Term Memory (includes Working Memory) - Long-Term Memory – Storage and the Brain: (Speth will cover but if you want your notes in order leave about 6-8 lines or so in between these two topics) Retrieval: Look up… Recall- Recognition- Context Effect- State Dependent-

Brief, initial coding of sensory information in the memory system. Sensory Memory Brief, initial coding of sensory information in the memory system. Iconic store – visual information Echoic store – sound information Information held just long enough to make a decision on its importance

Short-Term/working Memory memory system that contains information you are consciously aware of before it is stored more permanently or forgotten. Holds approximately seven, plus or minus two, chunks of information Can retain the information as long as it is rehearsed Also called “working memory”

Holds memories without conscious effort Long-Term Memory The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Holds memories without conscious effort

Storage: Memory and the Brain Module 22: Information Processing

Long-Term Potentiation An increase in a synapse’s firing efficiency that occurs when the sequence of neurons that represents a particular memory fires repeatedly; believed to be the neural basis of learning and memory

The memory of facts and experiences. Processed through the hippocampus Explicit Memory The memory of facts and experiences. Processed through the hippocampus

The memory of skills and procedures. Processed through the cerebellum Implicit Memory The memory of skills and procedures. Processed through the cerebellum

Explicit & Implicit Memories

Memory and the Hippocampus The Case of Clive Wearing Damage to the hippocampus would result in the inability to form new explicit memories, but the ability to remember the skills of implicit memories https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c62C_yTUyVg

The process of getting information out of memory storage Retrieval The process of getting information out of memory storage Two forms of retrieval Recall Recognition

Recall The type of retrieval in which you must search for information that you previously stored as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

Recognition The type of retrieval in which you must identify items you learned earlier, as on a multiple choice test.

Context Effect The enhanced ability to retrieve information when you are in an environment similar to the one in which you encoded the information.

State Dependent Memory The enhanced ability to retrieve information when you are in the same physical and emotional state you were in when you encoded the information. The retrieval state is congruent with the encoding state

Forgetting and Memory Construction Module 23 Forgetting and Memory Construction

Information Processing Model Encoding – The process of getting information into the memory system. Storage – The retention of encoded information in memory over time. Retrieval – The process of getting encoded information out of memory storage.

People fail to encode information because: It is unimportant to them Encoding Failures People fail to encode information because: It is unimportant to them It is not necessary to know the information A decrease in the brain’s ability to encode

Permastore Memory Long-term memories that are especially resistant to forgetting and that are likely to last a lifetime.

Interference A retrieval problem when one memory gets in the way of remembering another Two types of interference: Proactive interference - When an older memory disrupts the recall of a newer memory. Retroactive interference - When a more recent memory disrupts the recall of an older memory.

In Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, Repression In Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, the process of moving anxiety-producing memories to the unconscious. Supposed means of protecting oneself from painful memories Not well-supported by research; stressful incidents are actually more likely to be encoded

Module 23: Forgetting and Memory Construction

How do we make memory? The constructed nature of Memory Memories, are not like a video tape, they are formed as bits and pieces. People may retrieve only some of the pieces of the memory

Found that subjects’ memories vary based on the wording of questions Elizabeth Loftus (1944- ) Psychologist (at University of California, Irvine) whose research established the constructed nature of memory. Found that subjects’ memories vary based on the wording of questions Demonstrated the misinformation effect

Misinformation Effect Incorporating misleading information into a memory of an event. Affects eyewitness testimony One sheet said smashed one said contacted

Gary wells American Psychologist renown for his research on the inaccuracy of eye witness testimony problems with police lineups Work has made it to the supreme court Work has lead to freeing hundreds of people through reexamining cases and DNA through The Innocent Project Been on 60min, CNN…