Research in Psychology Chapter 2 Research in Psychology

Chapter 2 Objectives 2-1: Explain the use of the scientific method in psychology 2-2: Describe the various factors involved in designing and choosing a method of research 2-3: Understand the important approaches in gathering and processing data 2-4: Examine the ethical standards and issues involved in the field of psychology

Objective 2-1: I. The Scientific Method An approach to gaining knowledge Develop theories based on objective observations and conducting research Theory - statement of underlying principles about some aspect of nature

A. What are Paradigms? A particular way of looking at the world. Scientists work within a particular paradigm.

B. Where Do Theories Come From? Inductive thinking - reasoning from particular instances to general principles Can rarely, if ever, be proven true because it is unreasonable to test every possible situation Can be proven false by finding observations that don’t fit or contradict

C. How are theories used? Can be applied to different individuals - deductive thinking Can be sometimes broken down and tested if it is too broad

D. Scientific Attitudes and Values Rely on careful observation Quantify results Rely on verification or duplication of results Recognize results are tentative and based on probability Skeptical about conclusions BOTTOM LINE? SCIENTIFIC METHOD

E. Bias in Research Bias - any condition or set of conditions that distort data from what chance would produce. Several types can affect research: 1) Intentional - emphasize some aspects while playing down others 2) Experimenter - conscious or unconscious bias against a group

3) Participant - may behave differently if part of an experiment. Ways researchers can avoid bias: Be aware of own biases Have other people review work Disguise identity of participants Recognize that subject bias may affect behavior

Objective 2.2: II. Designing Research Not always done in labs Must be clear on terms

A.What is a Hypothesis? A statement of something believed to be true. Created when people notice a correlation (relationship) Can be tested by designing an experiment that may prove or disprove it

B. Selecting Participants 3 things to consider when selecting participants: 1) represent who you want to represent 2) the greater the number of participants the more meaningful the results 3) chosen in a way to avoid bias

C. Variables Anything that can take on different values or quantities Dependent variable - factor being observed or measured Independent variable - factor being studied or changed Controlling variables - everything else remains the same

D. Which kind of study? 1) Longitudinal Study 2) Cross-Sectional Study If want to determine long term effects Done with periodic checks on same group over a long period of time 2) Cross-Sectional Study Also to determine long term effects Different groups tested at same time

4) Blind/ Double Blind Studies 3) Case Studies In-depth studies of one individual 4) Blind/ Double Blind Studies To counter the effects of bias Not knowing whether they are receiving treatment or not 5) AB/ABA Studies To decide effect of treatment need to know what normal is (condition A).

Objective 2.3 III. Gathering Data A. Self-Reporting Methods 1) Surveys - answer questions on paper usually at own convenience May not return May misinterpret questions/answers 2) Interviews - answer questions face to face Very time consuming Interviewer may be biased

Create an Interview 5 questions on your choice of topic Answers should be Yes No or Always, Sometimes, Never You may work with a partner Each partner must ask 20 people Tally totals are due Monday

B. Behavioral Methods 1) Naturalistic Observation Observe in their natural environment 2) Laboratory Experiment Participants observed in a lab May not reflect accurate behavior 3) Field Study Move lab to more naturalistic setting

C. Physiological Measurement 1) Galvanic Skin Response (GSR) Monitor changes in perspiration - correlated with arousal or anxiety 2) Electromyograph (EMG) Records muscle tension - correlated to tension or stress 3) Electroencephalograph (EEG) Brain activity

4) Positron Emission Tomography (PET) - brain activity of glucose during activities 5) Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (FMRI) - highest blood oxygen levels of the brain

IV. Processing Data A. Correlational Approach How 2 variables are related to one another Correlation Coefficient The degree of relationship from +1 to -1 Positive = one goes up the other goes up Negative = one goes up the other goes down Correlation doesn’t imply causation A correlation could be a coincidence Predictions based on correlations should be made with caution

B. Graphs and Statistical Analysis Data manipulated in several ways 1) Descriptive Statistics Usually expressed in graph form to reveal obvious tendencies 2) Measures of Central Tendency Measures the typical score within a range of numbers

Mean - average (add up all and divide by number scores Median - midpoint of the distribution of the numbers Mode - the most frequent score

3)Measures of Variation There is a normal variation with any population. Standard deviation - measure of how far a set of test scores strays from normal distribution

Objective 2.4 V. Ethical Issues Risk/Benefit Assessment Benefits of an experiment should outweigh risks Ethical Concerns Moral and ethical responsibility Participants welfare is more important than the society’s gain Harm avoidance Informed consent and debriefing

Fairness and Deception Confidentiality Animal Research