Game Design

Overview Folk games [Costikyan] “Traditional” games, cultural origins Examples: Tic-Tac-Toe (Naughts and Crosses) Chess Go Backgammon Poker

Overview There is no one “right” way to design There are many successful approaches Specific requirements and constraints of each project and team determine what works and what does not. This introduction scratches the surface

The Language of Games Game development – a young industry The language of game design comes from how we talk about existing games Standards are still being formulated Theory Practice Terminology

The Language of Games Why do we play? What is the nature of games? Not a designer’s problem...or is it? What is the nature of games? Not a designer’s problem How is a game formed of parts? The designer’s problem

The Audience's Motivation 4 Keys 2 Fun – Nicole Lazzaro Serious Fun Meaning/value from relaxation, excitement Hard fun Adversity, challenge, strategy and problem solving Easy fun Intrigue and curiosity – exploration and adventure People Fun Stimulating social faculties – competition, teamwork, bonding, recognition, (shared) amusement

Aesthetics and Frame Aesthetics Frame Emotional responses during play Naïve practical approach, not classical Frame The border of a game’s context Inside the frame is in the game Outside the frame is real life

Approaching Design Computer games are an art form Game design practices can be taught Game design is a technical discipline like music, film, poetry The art of making dynamic models

Approaching Design A model represents something Mental/Cognitive Concepts Beliefs Maps Examples: Locations Relationships Mathematical Equations Formulas Algorithms

Approaching Design Abstract model Abstract game One rule Conceptual and idealized A tool for investigating specific questions Simplifies thinking to help understand problems May include assumptions thought to be false Abstract game One rule The piece is moved to the open square

Creativity Ability to create Ability to produce an idea, action, or object considered new and valuable

Creativity Classic approach - Graham Wallace Preparation Incubation Background research and comprehension Incubation Mulling things over Insight Sudden illumination – Eureka! Evaluation Validating revealed insights Elaboration Transforming the idea into substance

Creativity Brainstorming Generating ideas without discrimination Evaluation after elaboration Can be unfocused

Creativity Six Thinking Hats White Hat – neutral and objective Red Hat – intuition, gut reaction Black Hat – gloomy, naysayer Yellow Hat – Pollyannaish, optimistic Green Hat – growth and creativity Blue Hat – process and control Symbolize perspective worn by people involved in the creative endeavor Edward de Bono

Inspiration Board games Card games Paper RPGs Books Sports Film Spatial relationships Card games Resource management Paper RPGs Dynamic narratives Books Fantasy and agency Sports Team competition Film Continuity techniques Television Serialized stories Music Temporal systems Martial arts Discipline in action Children Invention

Genres Genre – a category describing generalities of conventions, style, and content

Genres Action Adventure Arcade Casual Education Fighting First-person shooter Platform Racing Rhythm Role-Playing (RPG) Simulation Sports Strategy Puzzle Traditional

Premise The metaphors of action and setting Directs the player experience Provides a context in which mechanics fit Players map game states to the premise

Premise Story is the typical example of premise Time Place Characters Relationships Motivations Etc.

Premise Premise may also be abstract Encompasses all game elements Tetris operates under a metaphor The metaphor: arranging colored shapes Encompasses all game elements Player discussions use the language of the premise

Premise Games are models Activities being modeled form premise Actions may appear similar in model Usually are fundamentally quite different Sports games are good examples Playing video games isn’t like playing the sport

Premise Goes beyond setting and tone Alters the players' mental model Basis of player understanding and strategy

Premise Possible Plausible Capable of happening in the real world Possible within the unique world of premise “Makes sense” within the game’s premise Consistent with the premise as understood

A Player-Game Model A model of the player – game relationship

A Player-Game Model Mechanics Interface System Things the player does Communication between player and game System Underlying structure and behavior

Play Mechanics Gameplay (Play/game) Mechanics Feelings of playing a particular game Activities engaged in a particular game (Play/game) Mechanics Specific to game activities “What the player does”

Seven Stages of Action Execution Evaluation Intention to act Sequence of action Execution of action sequence Evaluation Evaluating interpretations Interpreting perceptions Perceiving states

Seven Stages of Action A goal is formed Models the desired state The desired result of an action Examples: Have a glass of water in hand Capture a queen Taste ice cream

Seven Stages of Action Goals turned into intentions to act Specific statements of what is to be done

Seven Stages of Action Intentions put into an action sequence The order internal commands will be performed

Seven Stages of Action The action sequence is executed The player manipulates control variables

Seven Stages of Action The state of the game is perceived State variables are revealed via the interface

Seven Stages of Action Player interprets their perceptions Interpretations based upon a model of the system

Seven Stages of Action Player evaluates the interpretations Current states are compared with intentions and goals

Seven Stages of Action Donald Norman’s approximate model Actions not often in discrete stages Not all actions progress through all stages

Seven Stages of Action Scales to… …an individual mechanic A “primary element” Examples: Move Shoot Talk …an entire game A generalized model of interaction

Designer and Player Models Systems are built from designer mental models Design models may only anticipate player goals

Designer and Player Models Players build mental models from mechanics Based upon interactions with the system image The reality of the system in operation Not from direct communication with designers Player and designer models can differ significantly

Core Mechanics Typical patterns of action Fundamental mechanics cycled repeatedly Examples: Action shooters – run, shoot, and explore Strategy game – explore, expand, exploit, exterminate referred to as the “four X’s”

Choice and Outcome Choice Outcome Possibility space A question asked of the player Outcome The end result of a given choice Possibility space Represents the set of possible events A “landscape” of choice and outcome

Choice and Outcome Consequence or Weight The significance of an outcome Greater consequences alter the course of the game more significantly Choices are balanced first by consequence

Choice and Outcome Well-designed choice Often desirable and undesirable effects Should relate to player goals Balanced against neighboring choices Too much weight to every choice is melodrama Orthogonal choices – distinct from others Not just “shades of grey”

Qualities of Choice Terms in which to discuss choices Hollow – lacking consequence Obvious – leaves no choice to be made Uninformed – arbitrary decision Dramatic – strongly connects to feelings Weighted – good and bad in every choice Immediate – effects are immediate Long-term – effects over extended period Orthogonal – choices distinct from each other

Goals and Objectives Objectives Goals Designed tasks players must perform Rigid requirements – formal Goals An intentional outcome Notions that direct player action Scales all levels of motivation From selecting particular strategies… …to basic motor actions (e.g. pressing a button)

Goals and Objectives Objectives and goals can differ Players goals reflect their understanding of the game Designers must consider how the game communicates with players Affordances – the apparent ways something can be used

Resources Resources Things used by agents to reach goals To be meaningful, they must be… Useful – provide some value Limited – in total or rate of supply

Economies Economies Questions regarding game economies: Systems of supply, distribution, consumption Questions regarding game economies: What resources exist? How and when will resources be used? How and when will resources be supplied? What are their limits?

Player Strategy People usually reason with commonsense A view of linear causation – cause and effect Complex systems do not behave linearly Players need information to support linear strategy

User Interface Interface Input Output Game controls Presentation, and feedback Input Player to game Output Game to player

User Interface Elements Contains both hardware, software, and performance elements. Hardware such as game pads and touchscreens Software such as engines Performance such as pressing a button

Interface – main display Typical perspectives: First-person Over-the-shoulder (OTS) Overhead (top-down) Side Isometric

Interface - audio General categories of audio Music Sound effects A powerful tool for establishing mood and theme Sound effects Dialog

Interface Controls Control inputs Physical input devices User manipulations of the controls They are not strategies Example: a sequence of buttons to perform a combo Strategies involve deciding when to perform, and which to perform

Interface Keymaps and Control tables/diagrams Show input, action, and context

Interface Front-end In application software In games The visible portion of the application In games GUI elements not displayed during play

Interface HUD (Head-Up Display) Displays during play Shows and other information difficult to present directly in the game environment Examples Scores Resource levels Mini Map Chat Alerts Level

Interface Mapping An understood relationship between two things Especially the relationship of a model to its subject Examples

HCI and Cognitive Ergonomics HCI – Human-Computer Interaction Study of… Communication between users and computers How people design, build, and use interfaces Better support for cooperative work Cognitive Ergonomics Analyzes the cognitive representations and processes involved with performing tasks

Design of Everyday Things Norman’s five principles of design Visibility Making the parts visible Mappings Understandable relationships between controls and actions Affordances The perceived uses of an object Constraints Prevent the user from doing things they shouldn’t Feedback Reporting what has been done and accomplished

Systems Emergent complexity Emergence Behaviors that cannot be predicted simply from the rules of a system Emergence Coined by George Henry Lewes in 1873 See: John Conway’s Game of Life

Psychology Working Memory Holds roughly 7 ± 2 items at one time while other cognitive operations on them

Psychology Attention Method of enhancing perceptions relative to other stimuli in the same environment How we focus on important things Limited capacity

Psychology Classical conditioning Reaction to stimulus is conditioned by pairing with another stimulus that elicits the desired response naturally

Psychology Unconditioned stimulus – Meat Unconditioned response – Salivation over meat Conditioned stimulus – Tone Conditioned response – Salivation over tone

Psychology Operant conditioning Operant Reinforcement contingency Learning by encouraging or discouraging Operant A response; the action in question Example: pressing a button Reinforcement contingency Consistent relationship between the operant and a result in the environment

Psychology Reinforcers Positive reinforcement Negative reinforcement Increase the probability an action will be repeated Positive reinforcement Positive stimulus that reinforces the behavior Ex. Use umbrella and be dry Negative reinforcement The removal or prevention of a negative stimulus Ex. Use umbrella and keep from getting wet Punishment Reduces the likelihood of a behavior with a stimulus Ex. Being burned by a hot stove