BACKGROUND Experiment Current study Results Discussion Elevator Task Language learning as cognitive training: attentional improvement after a one-week intensive Gaelic course Madeleine R Long, Mariana Vega-Mendoza, Antonella Sorace, Thomas H Bak s1300639@sms.ed.ac.uk BACKGROUND Bilingualism & cognition: The big debate Most studies examine early acquisition and balanced command of languages. Recent research in those who have learned languages in adulthood without reaching native-like proficiency suggests similar cognitive effects as classic bilinguals. (Bak, Nissan, Allerhand, & Deary, 2014; Bak, Vega-Mendoza, & Sorace, 2014; Tao, Marzecová, Taft, Asanowicz, & Wodniecka, 2011). These findings, emphasizing the importance of language learning and use, link bilingualism to cognitive reserve (Stern, 2002). Bilingualism Studies Correlation Studies Bilingualism and cognitive benefits: The evidence is inconsistent. Intervention Studies Physical activity Mental activity Better performance in old age Familiar, less taxing activity Novel, cognitively demanding activity Better results in bilinguals- from childhood, to old age, and dementia. (Bialystok & Viswanathan, 2009; Kavé, Eyal, Shorek, & Cohen-Mansfield, 2008) Very few studies show an opposite effect, namely a bilingual disadvantage. (de Bruin, Treccani, & Della Sala, 2014) No difference between bilinguals and monolinguals. (Paap & Greenberg, 2013) (Lampit, Hallock, & Valenzuela, 2014; Park et al., 2014) (Scarmeas & Stern, 2003; Vemuri et al. 2014) Elevator Task measures sustained attention Elevator Task with Distraction measures selective attention and inhibitory skills Elevator Task with Reversal measures attentional switching and working memory Experiment Test of Everyday Attention (TEA) Current study HYPOTHESIS L2 learning, an example of a cognitively demanding novel activity, will lead to improved cognitive performance as early as one week after an intensive course. intensive course. RESEARCH QUESTION Count a tone of the same pitch presented at irregular intervals PARTICIPANTS 33 language learners (LLs) & 34 controls 18 Passive 16 Active Ignore high tones while counting low tones METHODS Participants were administered three auditory subtests of the TEA to measure changes in attention and EF before and after a week-long course. Count middle tones while adding with high tones and subtracting with low tones Results Linear trend performance on ETR for the LL, AC, and PC groups Group performance on TEA tasks Group performance on TEA tasks Individual performance on ETR pre-course and nine months later ETR performance for LLs divided into three age groups ETR performance for LLs in the three levels of Gaelic proficiency Discussion SUMMARY LLs experienced significant improvement in attentional switching/working memory. Improvement was found regardless of age or Gaelic level. These cognitive effects can be maintained through continued practice. IMPLICATIONS Novelty, challenge and effort present “desirable difficulties” contributing to a better cognitive outcome, while continuous practice offers a mechanism to stabilize these changes. Bak, T. H., Nissan, J. J., Allerhand, M. M., & Deary, I. J. (2014). Does bilingualism influence cognitive aging? Annals of neurology. Bak, T. H., Vega-Mendoza, M., & Sorace, A. (2014). Never too late? An advantage on tests of auditory attention extends to late bilinguals. Frontiers in psychology, 5. Bialystok, E., & Viswanathan, M. (2009). Components of executive control with advantages for bilingual children in two cultures. Cognition, 112(3), 494-500. Bjork, R. A., & Kroll, J. F. (In press). Desirable Difficulties in Vocabulary Learning. American Journal of Psychology. de Bruin, A., Treccani, B., & Della Sala, S. (2014). Cognitive Advantage in Bilingualism An Example of Publication Bias? Psychological science, 0956797614557866 Lampit, A., Hallock, H., & Valenzuela, M. (2014). Computerized Cognitive Training in Cognitively Healthy Older Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Effect Modifiers. PLoS medicine, 11(11), e1001756. Paap, K. R., & Greenberg, Z. I. (2013). There is no coherent evidence for a bilingual advantage in executive processing. Cognitive psychology, 66(2), 232-258. Park, D. C., Lodi-Smith, J., Drew, L., Haber, S., Hebrank, A., Bischof, G. N., & Aamodt, W. (2014). The Impact of Sustained Engagement on Cognitive Function in Older Adults The Synapse Project. Psychological science, 25(1), 103-112. Stern, Y. (2002). What is cognitive reserve? Theory and research application of the reserve concept. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 8(03), 448-460. (Bjork & Kroll, 2015) FUTURE RESEARCH Expand data collection in Skye. Investigate other languages.