Today, we are living with the “ghosts of Vietnam”. The Vietnam War 1954 - 1975 America’s most unpopular war Cost LBJ his second term to Richard Nixon America’s longest and most expensive war Divided America on the homefront The best technical war money could buy America hardly ever lost a tactical battle A war America did not win Today, we are living with the “ghosts of Vietnam”.

Student Activism Student Activism in the 1960s Generation Gap — Young Americans in the 1960s had many opportunities unknown to previous generations; many also questioned the values of their parents. These factors contributed to a wider generation gap between college-aged youths and their parents. Students for a Democratic Society and the New Left — Organized in 1960, Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) had a major impact on the New Left, a political movement that advocated radical changes to deal with problems such as poverty and racism. The Free Speech Movement — Student protests for free speech at the University of California at Berkeley inspired similar movements elsewhere, including challenges to social restrictions on campuses. The Teach-in Movement — Begun at the University of Michigan in March 1965, teach-ins, or special sessions at which issues concerning the war could be discussed, soon became a popular means of expressing antiwar sentiment. Continued Protests — Hundreds of demonstrations continued at colleges and universities around the country. One of the most dramatic, at Columbia University in New York City, linked the issues of civil rights and the war.

Draft Resistance To increase the available fighting force, the United States invoked the Selective Service Act of 1951, drafting young men between the ages of 18 and 26 into the armed forces. Most of those who refused to be drafted in the early 1960s were conscientious objectors, people who opposed fighting on moral or religious grounds. As the Vietnam War progressed, the draft-resistance movement grew, with many young men burning their draft cards or fleeing the country to avoid the draft. At first, college students could receive a deferment, or postponement of their call to serve. Deferments were eliminated in 1971 in response to complaints that they were unfair to those who could not afford college.

Anti-War Demonstrations Columbia University, 1967

“Hanoi Jane” Jane Fonda Hollywood opposed the war. Jane Fonda went to Hanoi to visit with U.S. POW. She was used as propaganda by North Vietnam. Recently, a Vietnam vet “spit” on her and called her a traitor. Jane Fonda

Anti-War Demonstrations

Anti-War Demonstrations This looks like my US History classroom when I was a Junior in 1970

Anti-War Demonstrations May 4, 1970 4 students shot dead. 11 students wounded Jackson State University May 10, 1970 2 dead; 12 wounded Kent State University

Johnson Decides Not to Run Continuing protests and an increasing number of casualties steadily decreased popular support for Johnson’s handling of the war. After the Tet Offensive, Johnson rarely left the White House for fear of angry protesters. Two other Democratic contenders, antiwar candidate Eugene McCarthy and Robert Kennedy, brother of John Kennedy and a senator from New York, campaigned against Johnson for the party’s nomination. On March 31, 1968, Johnson announced in a nationally televised speech that he would not seek another term as President.

Impact of the Vietnam War Johnson announces (March, 1968): I do not believe that I should devote an hour or a day of my time to any personal partisan causes, or to any duties other than the awesome duties of this office, the Presidency of your country. Accordingly, I shall not seek, and I will not accept, the nomination of my party for another term as your President.

American Morale Begins to Dip Disproportionate representation of poor people and minorities. Severe racial problems. Major drug problems. Officers in combat 6 mo.; in rear 6 mo. Enlisted men in combat for 12 mo.

The Election of 1968 The Democratic Convention At the time of the Democratic Convention in Chicago, Eugene McCarthy was thought too far out of the mainstream, and Robert Kennedy had been assassinated. During the convention, police attacked protesters, with much of the violence taking place in front of television cameras. Vice President Hubert Humphrey won the Democratic nomination, but the party had been further torn apart by the convention’s events. The Nation Chooses Nixon Richard M. Nixon received the Republican Party’s nomination for President. Nixon soon took the lead in national polls, allowing his running mate Spiro Agnew to make harsh accusations, while Nixon stayed “above the fray.” Independent candidate George C. Wallace drew many votes. Additionally, many disillusioned Democrats did not vote. In a close race, Nixon won the presidency in the 1968 election.

Other Factors in the 1968 Election The 1960s was an unsettling period for mainstream Americans, a group sometimes referred to as Middle America. Many turned to the Republican Party for stability, voting for Republican candidates such as Nixon. Many Americans were disillusioned by Johnson’s handling of the Vietnam War. Although Johnson stopped the bombing of North Vietnam before the election, Hubert Humphrey’s candidacy was hurt by his defense of the President’s Vietnam policies.

DIVIDED AMERICA ESTABLISHMENT ANTI-ESTABLISHMENT divided US DIVIDED AMERICA ESTABLISHMENT ANTI-ESTABLISHMENT Called Middle America, the Silent Majority Supported Vietnam War Traditional American values: hard work, family and patriotism Feared and disliked new styles of music and dress of youth Against use of illegal drugs Called counterculture Hippies, Flower Children Opposed Vietnam War Disillusioned with values of money, status, power; emphasized love, individual freedom, cooperation Music and fashion emphasized movement toward new society, greater freedom Used “mind-expanding” drugs, LSD

Nixon in Vietnam Nixon’s 1968 Campaign promised an end to the war: Peace with Honor Appealed to the great “Silent Majority” Vietnamization Expansion of the conflict – The “Secret War” Cambodia Laos Agent Orange – chemical defoliant Nixon’s “secret” plan never materializes. He involved us more. “Peace with Honor” We’ll win befoe we withdraw. Expansion:Cambodia invaded in 1970: Ho Chi Minh Trail Laos invaded in 1971: Ho Chi Minh Trail

The First Vietnam War draft lottery, requiring mandatory military service based on date of birth. Ho Chi Minh dies at age 79 1969 Secretary of defense, Melvin Laird, announces the policy of “Vietnamization” Diminished role for the U.S. Military The role of defeating the communists shifts to the South Vietnamese Army. Gradual withdrawal of U.S. troops.

Nixon Policy Peace with honor in Vietnam All POWs must return NOT turn over SVN to Reds South Vietnam must fight its war with US $$$ Secret bombing in Cambodia (invaded 1970) All US ground combat ends 1970; air war? End of containment policy Détente with USSR ... friendship? Détente with China ... friendship? play off China Vs. USSR fear each other both stop helping Hanoi; US can now bomb

Nixon’s Vietnam Policy Toward the end of his term as President, Johnson had called for peace negotiations to end the Vietnam War. However, the resulting Paris peace talks, which began in May 1968, failed to produce an agreement. President Nixon campaigned on the claim that he had a secret plan to end the war. In June 1969, he began the policy of Vietnamization, replacing American troops in Vietnam with South Vietnamese soldiers. Although Nixon wanted to end the war, he did not want to lose it. He therefore launched secret bombing raids and expanded the war to Cambodia, hoping to destroy Viet Cong camps there. Nixon hoped his Cambodian attacks would help America in peace negotiations. Instead, the attacks resulted in both civil war in Cambodia and more antiwar protests in the United States.

Nixon Calls for Law and Order The Silent Majority Nixon had campaigned promising a return to law and order. As President, he strengthened this position, discouraging protest against the war. In a 1969 speech, Nixon appealed to those who, he felt, quietly supported his policies. He referred to this group of Americans as “the silent majority.” Kent State and Jackson State When student antiwar protesters at Kent State University in Ohio reacted angrily to Nixon’s invasion of Cambodia, Nixon ordered the National Guard to Kent State. After students threw rocks at the guardsmen, the troops opened fire, killing and wounding both protesters and bystanders. The violence at Kent State, and a similar incident at Jackson State in Mississippi, horrified Americans.

Vietnamization, 1969-72 SVN government & army built up pacification 1969-71; 90% of population safe (many moved to cities) Viet Cong lose base; US victory! now a conventional war of NV vs SV Secret bombings of Cambodia ineffective; US invasion 1970 [more protests] US ground troops exit 1971

The Vietnam War, 1964 to 1975 1970 Invasion of Cambodia, April 29 to June 29 1971 Invasion of Laos, Feb. 6 to March 1972 Haiphong harbor mined U.S. air raids over Hanoi

nixon/cambodia

Anti-War Demonstrations May 4, 1970 4 students shot dead. 11 students wounded Jackson State University May 10, 1970 2 dead; 12 wounded Kent State University

1970 National Security Advisor, Henry A. Kissinger begins secret peace talks with North Vietnamese leaders in Paris. President Nixon withdrew 40,000 troops as part of the Vietnamization process. Troop levels: South Vietnamese 968,000 American 334,600 Australian 6,800 New Zealand 470 South Korea 48,450 Philippines 70 Thailand 11,570

1971 Nixon withdraws 100,000 troops. grunts Nixon withdraws 100,000 troops. Defensive role for U.S. ground forces. Offensive attacks by South Vietnamese Army. Troop Levels: South Vietnamese 1,046,250 American 156,800 Australian 2,000 New Zealand 100 South Korea 45,700 Philippines 70 Thailand 6,000

“Pentagon Papers,” 1971 Former defense analyst Daniel Ellsberg leaked govt. docs. regarding war efforts during Johnson’s administration to the New York Times. Docs.--> Govt. misled Congress & Amer. People regarding its intentions in Vietnam during mid-1960s. Primary reason for fighting not to eliminate communism, but to avoid humiliating defeat. New York Times v. United States (1971) Nixon resigns over the Watergate Scandal in 1974. Ford takes the helm.

1972 Troop Levels: South Vietnamese 1,048,000 American 24,200 Mr. Billett turns 18 in Feb. and registers for the draft. August, the Watergate burglaries occur. Troop Levels: South Vietnamese 1,048,000 American 24,200 Australian 130 New Zealand 50 South Korea 36,790 Philippines Thailand

The Ceasefire, 1973 Peace is at hand – Kissinger, 1972 North Vietnam attacks South Most Massive U.S. bombing commences 1973: Ceasefire signed between U.S., South Vietnam, & North Vietnam Peace with honor (Nixon) Nixon resigns over the Watergate Scandal in 1974. Ford takes the helm.

Dr. Henry Kissinger & Le Duc Tho Peace Negotiations US & Vietnamese argue for 5 mo. over size of conference table. Dr. Henry Kissinger & Le Duc Tho

The Ceasefire, 1973 Conditions: U.S. to remove all troops North Vietnam could leave troops already in S.V. North Vietnam would resume war No provision for POWs or MIAs Last American troops left South Vietnam on March 29, 1973 1975: North Vietnam defeats South Vietnam Saigon renamed Ho Chi Minh City Many U.S.-loyal South Vietnamese attempt to flee for fear of execution by the North.

American Withdrawal Provisions of Peace Settlement Between the United States, South Vietnam, North Vietnam, and the Viet Cong,Signed in Paris in January 1973 The United States would withdraw all its forces from South Vietnam within 60 days. All prisoners of war would be released. All parties to the agreement would end military activities in Laos and Cambodia. The 17th parallel would continue to divide North and South Vietnam until the country could be reunited.

helo 1973 Troop Levels: South Vietnamese 1,110,000 American 50

1974 Nixon’s impeachment hearings/Resignation South braces for huge Communist invasion.

The Vietnam War, 1964 to 1975 1973 U.S. troops withdraw 1975 Surrender in Saigon, April 20

South Vietnamese Attempt to Flee the Country The Fall of Saigon South Vietnamese Attempt to Flee the Country

America Abandons Its Embassy The Fall of Saigon April 30, 1975 America Abandons Its Embassy

The New Vietnam Formerly Saigon

North Vietnamese at the Presidential Palace The Fall of Saigon North Vietnamese at the Presidential Palace

The ancient capital city of Hue falls to the North Vietnamese Army. In case there was anyone doubt who won the war, the communists later rename Saigon, Ho Chi Minh City. The ancient capital city of Hue falls to the North Vietnamese Army. 1975 Last Americans evacuate as communists take Saigon. President Gerald Ford declared the war “finished.”

Aftermath of the War in Asia South Vietnam Falls After American forces had withdrawn, North Vietnam attacked strategic cities in South Vietnam, ending with its capital, Saigon. Following a last-minute evacuation of both American soldiers and Vietnamese refugees, South Vietnam surrendered in April 1975, and Vietnam became unified under a Communist government. Southeast Asia After the War In April 1975, Cambodia fell to the Khmer Rouge, a Communist force led by Pol Pot. The Khmer Rouge killed a quarter of the Cambodian population, claiming they were “tainted” with Western ways. Vietnam’s new leaders forced hundreds of thousands of Vietnamese into “reeducation camps”; refugees from Vietnam, Cambodia, and newly Communist Laos fled their home countries.

The Impact 26th Amendment: 18-year-olds vote Nixon abolished the draft--> all-volunteer army War Powers Act, 1973 ٭ President must notify Congress within 48 hours of deploying military force President must withdraw forces unless he gains Congressional approval within 90 days Disregard for Veterans --> seen as “baby killers” POW/MIA issue lingered War Powers Act., 1973, passed over Nixon's veto, requires the President to notify Congress within 48 hours of his use of military force in a foreign country or enlarging an ongoing conflict. The President must secure Congressional approval if he intends to keep these troops overseas for more than 60 days. If he doesn't, he must withdraw the forces. Congress can pass a joint resolution to withdraw the troops before the 60 day deadline. (Each President since has denied its validity, though the issue has never been tested.) No welcome home (shamed and ashamed), high unemployment, alcohol & drug abuse; poor care of disabled vets: underfunded vets hospitals, Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder; Agent Orange health problems, birth defects in vets’ children.

The Legacy of the War With a cost of at least $150 billion, and hundreds of thousands of American soldiers killed or wounded, the Vietnam War was the longest and least successful war in American history. Thousands of American soldiers who did not return home after the war were listed as POWs (prisoners of war) or MIAs (missing in action). Many remain unaccounted for today. In Vietnam, millions were dead or wounded, many of them civilians. The war also heavily damaged the landscape of Vietnam. In 1994, the United States lifted its trade embargo against Vietnam; in 1995, full diplomatic relations were restored.

Some American POWs Returned from the “Hanoi Hilton” Senator John McCain (R-AZ)

pows

2,583 American POWs / MIAs still unaccounted for today.

And in the End…. Ho Chi Minh: If we have to fight, we will fight. You will kill ten of our men and we will kill one of yours, and in the end it will be you who tires of it.

“War—What is it good for? --absolutely nothing!!” Scenes from Francis Ford Coppola’s Vietnam epic, Apocalypse Now

grunts

grunts

tet

dead soldiers

bombing

bombing

The Costs 3,000,000 Vietnamese killed 58,000 Americans killed 300,000 wounded Of those that died 11,465 were teenagers 10,000 dead from accidents 153,000 hospitalized & survive 2,590,000 Americans in Vietnam. Great Society programs underfunded $150,000,000,000 in U.S. spending U.S. morale, self-confidence, trust of government decimated Diversion of capital to the war indirectly caused economic recession: 11% inflation and 12% unemployment!

The Costs 1,200 airplanes crash 6,727,084 tons of bombs were dropped. 3,750 fixed wing aircraft 4,865 helicopters were lost. 500,000 acres of Vietnam were sprayed with defoliants, Agent Orange The effects of Agent Orange may last up to 100 years.

Lessons for U.S. Presidents Wars must be of short duration Wars must yield few American casualties Restrict media access to battlefields Develop and maintain Congressional and public support Set clear, winnable goals Set deadline for troop withdrawals

The Debate Continues: Where Were You in the War, Daddy The Debate Continues: Where Were You in the War, Daddy? George Bush and John Kerry

The Vietnam Veterans Memorial Designed by 21-year old Maya Ying Lin and completed in 1982, the Vietnam Veterans Memorial stands near the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C. It consists of a long wall of black granite, listing the names of every American who died in the Vietnam War. Since its completion, visitors have added to the memorial by leaving personal tokens at the wall in memory of their loved ones.

President Clinton formally recognized Vietnam on July 11, 1995