Language Meaning & Definition

Functions of Ordinary Language Ordinary language serves a wide variety of functions... Conveying information Asking questions Greeting people and saying goodbye Expressing emotions Issuing commands Etc...

Functions of Ordinary Language Ordinary language serves a wide variety of functions... Conveying information Asking questions Greeting people and saying goodbye Expressing emotions Issuing commands Etc... For the sake of this class, we will focus on two functions of language in particular:

Functions of Ordinary Language Ordinary language serves a wide variety of functions... Conveying information Asking questions Greeting people and saying goodbye Expressing emotions Issuing commands Etc... For the sake of this class, we will focus on two functions of language in particular: Expressing and evoking feelings

Cognitive vs Emotive Meanings These two functions correspond to two different forms of meaning.

Cognitive vs Emotive Meanings These two functions correspond to two different forms of meaning: Cognitive meaning Terminology that conveys factual information has a cognitive meaning.

Cognitive vs Emotive Meanings These two functions correspond to two different forms of meaning: Cognitive meaning Terminology that conveys factual information has a cognitive meaning. Emotive meaning Terminology that expresses or evokes feelings has an emotive meaning.

2.1 Varieties of Meaning Conveying cognitive meaning:

2.1 Varieties of Meaning Conveying cognitive meaning: “Texas has executed more inmates than any other state.”

2.1 Varieties of Meaning Conveying cognitive meaning: “Texas has executed more inmates than any other state.” Conveying emotive meaning:

2.1 Varieties of Meaning Conveying cognitive meaning: “Texas has executed more inmates than any other state.” Conveying emotive meaning: “The death penalty is disgusting.”

2.1 Varieties of Meaning Emotionally charged statements tend to have both forms of meaning – “The death penalty is a cruel and inhuman form of punishment.” The cognitive meaning of the above statement is a value claim.

2.1 Varieties of Meaning Value claims Value claims are claims that something is right or wrong, good or bad, important or not important.

2.1 Continued Disguising Value Claims Value claims need to be defended, the same way factual claims do. Using emotive terms is sometimes used to try and “bypass” that in an argument.

2.1 Defective Cognitive Meanings

2.1 Defective Cognitive Meanings There are two ways in which the cognitive meaning of a term can be ‘defective’: Vagueness Ambiguity

2.1 Continued Vagueness Vague expressions are those that allow for a continuous range of interpretations.

2.1 Continued Vagueness Examples of vague terms/expressions: Vague expressions are those that allow for a continuous range of interpretations. Examples of vague terms/expressions: I love my husband, but I also love Game of Thrones. Who counts as ‘tall’? Most students are ‘tall’ compared to a hobbit, but not compared to your average NBA player. When does your hair go from ‘thinning’ to ‘balding’? What counts as ‘art’?

2.1 Continued Ambiguity Ambiguity describes a different type of uncertainty.

2.1 Continued Ambiguity Ambiguity describes a different type of uncertainty. Ambiguous expressions are those that can be interpreted as having more than one clearly distinct meaning in a given context.

2.1 Continued Ambiguity Examples of ambiguous expressions: Ambiguity describes a different type of uncertainty. Ambiguous expressions are those that can be interpreted as having more than one clearly distinct meaning in a given context. Examples of ambiguous expressions: A “light” beer may be light in taste, color, or calories. In “drawing” a weapon, you may be preparing to attack someone, or be making a pretty picture.

Verbal vs Factual Disputes Vagueness and ambiguity sometimes lead to disputes that are merely over the meaning of particular terms.

Verbal vs Factual Disputes There are two different kinds of disputes to remember: Verbal disputes Factual disputes

Verbal vs Factual Disputes VERBAL DISPUTES Verbal disputes are disputes over the meaning of words.

Verbal vs Factual Disputes VERBAL DISPUTES Verbal disputes are disputes over the meaning of words. Art, for example, is a vague term. If we are arguing over whether John Cage’s musical piece 4’33” is art, we are engaged in a verbal dispute.

Verbal vs Factual Disputes

Verbal vs Factual Disputes FACTUAL DISPUTES Factual disputes are disagreements that arise over what the fact of the matter is.

Verbal vs Factual Disputes FACTUAL DISPUTES Factual disputes are disagreements that arise over what the fact of the matter is. For example: If I say that I have three teaching assistants, and Kaetlin and Rick say that I only have two, we are having a factual dispute.

2.2 The Intension and Extension of Terms

2.2 Terms, Intension & Extension A term is any word or arrangement of words that can serve as the subject of a statement.

2.2 Terms, Intension & Extension A term is any word or arrangement of words that can serve as the subject of a statement. Examples are: Names/nouns (‘Barack Obama’, ‘vegetable’, ‘fennec fox’) Descriptive phrases (‘the strongest man in the world’, ‘Ancient Greece’) Concepts (‘speed’, ‘ugliness’)

2.2 Terms, Intension & Extension A term is any word or arrangement of words that can serve as the subject of a statement. Examples are: Names/nouns (‘Barack Obama’, ‘vegetable’, ‘fennec fox’) Descriptive phrases (‘the strongest man in the world’, ‘Ancient Greece’) Concepts (‘speed’, ‘ugliness’) Non-terms: Prepositions (‘to’, ‘from’) Adverbs and non-subject adjectives (‘quickly’, ‘ugly’)

2.2 Continued Intensional Meaning and Connotation: Intensional meaning consists of the qualities or attributes that the term connotes.

2.2 Continued Intensional Meaning and Connotation: Intensional meaning consists of the qualities or attributes that the term connotes. For example, the term “dog” connotes four- leggedness, furriness, friendliness, and all the other properties we think of dogs as having

2.2 Continued Intensional Meaning and Connotation: Intensional meaning consists of the qualities or attributes that the term connotes. For example, the term “dog” connotes four- leggedness, furriness, friendliness, and all the other properties we think of dogs as having Those properties are the connotation of the word ‘dog’

2.2 Continued Extensional Meaning and Denotation: The extensional meaning of a term consists of the members of the class that the term denotes.

2.2 Continued Extensional Meaning and Denotation: The extensional meaning of a term consists of the members of the class that the term denotes. The extensional meaning of ‘dog’ could be given by a list of things that are all dogs, for example: Daschunds Pitbulls Poodles Bulldogs Golden retrievers

2.2 Continued Extensional Meaning and Denotation: The extensional meaning of a term consists of the members of the class that the term denotes. The extensional meaning of ‘dog’ could be given by a list of things that are all dogs, for example: Daschunds Pitbulls Poodles Bulldogs Golden retrievers The above list partially represents the denotation of the term ‘dog.’

2.2 Continued Some terms have an intension, but no extension: they have an empty extension.

2.2 Continued Some terms have an intension, but no extension: they have an empty extension. For example, ‘unicorn’ has an empty extension.

2.2 Continued Some terms have an intension, but no extension: they have an empty extension. For example, ‘unicorn’ has an empty extension. However, it does have an intension (four- legged, horselike, horn-having)

2.2 Continued To improve on our definition of vagueness, vague terms are terms that have an uncertain extension: it’s not clear what the term should count as denoting.

2.2 Organizing Terms in a Series One way to practice understanding these concepts better is to try ordering lists of terms in a series by the size of their intension or extension.

2.2 Organizing Terms in a Series Increasing and Decreasing Intension: Increasing intension is when each term in the series (except the first) connotes more attributes than the one preceding it.

2.2 Organizing Terms in a Series Increasing and Decreasing Intension: Increasing intension is when each term in the series (except the first) connotes more attributes than the one preceding it. Each term in the series after the first is more specific than the one preceding it. Decreasing intension is the reverse of this order.

2.2 Organizing Terms in a Series Example: Increasing Intension Object Organism Plant Tree Maple Tree

2.2 Organizing Terms in a Series Example: Increasing Intension Object Organism Plant Tree Maple Tree As intension increases, the attributes connoted by the terms increase in number.

2.2 Continued Increasing and Decreasing Extension:

2.2 Continued Increasing and Decreasing Extension: Increasing extension is when each term in a series (except the first) denotes a class having more members than the class of the term preceding it.

2.2 Continued Increasing and Decreasing Extension: Increasing extension is when each term in a series (except the first) denotes a class having more members than the class of the term preceding it. In other words, the class size gets larger with each successive term. Decreasing extension is the reverse of this order.

2.2 Continued Example: Increasing Extension Maple Tree Tree Plant Organism Object

2.2 Continued Example: Increasing Extension Maple Tree Tree Plant Organism Object As extension increases, each term describes a class with more and more entities in it.

2.2 Try it automobile, vehicle, object, Ford Mustang, sports car List the above in order of: 1) increasing intension 2) increasing extension