CHAPTER 6 Structure of the Atom The Atomic Models of Thomson and Rutherford Rutherford Scattering The Classic Atomic Model The Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom Successes & Failures of the Bohr Model Characteristic X-Ray Spectra and Atomic Number Atomic Excitation by Electrons Niels Bohr (1885-1962) Bohr picture: web.gc.cuny.edu/ ashp/nml/copenhagen/ The opposite of a correct statement is a false statement. But the opposite of a profound truth may well be another profound truth. An expert is a person who has made all the mistakes that can be made in a very narrow field. Never express yourself more clearly than you are able to think. Prediction is very difficult, especially about the future. - Niels Bohr

Structure of the Atom Evidence in 1900 indicated that the atom was not a fundamental unit: There seemed to be too many kinds of atoms, each belonging to a distinct chemical element (way more than earth, air, water, and fire!). Atoms and electromagnetic phenomena were intimately related (magnetic materials; insulators vs. conductors; different emission spectra). Elements combine with some elements but not with others, a characteristic that hinted at an internal atomic structure (valence). The discoveries of radioactivity, x-rays, and the electron (all seemed to involve atoms breaking apart in some way). http://education.jlab.org/qa/atom_model.html

Primitive view of an atom Knowledge of atoms in 1900 Primitive view of an atom Electrons (discovered in 1897) carried the negative charge. Electrons were very light, even compared to the atom. Protons had not yet been discovered, but clearly positive charge had to be present to achieve charge neutrality.

Thomson’s Atomic Model Thomson’s “plum-pudding” model of the atom had the positive charge spread uniformly throughout a sphere the size of the atom, with electrons embedded in the uniform background. In Thomson’s view, when the atom was heated, the electrons could vibrate about their equilibrium positions, thus producing electromagnetic radiation. Unfortunately, Thomson couldn’t explain spectra with this model.

Experiments of Geiger and Marsden Rutherford, Geiger, and Marsden conceived a new technique for investigating the structure of matter by scattering a particles from atoms.

Experiments of Geiger and Marsden 2 Geiger showed that many a particles were scattered from thin gold-leaf targets at backward angles greater than 90°.

Rutherford’s Atomic Model Experimental observation of many large angle scattering events! Experimental results were not consistent with Thomson’s atomic model. Rutherford proposed that an atom has a small positively charged core (nucleus) surrounded by the negative electrons. Geiger and Marsden confirmed the idea in 1913. Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937) http://charm.physics.ucsb.edu/people/hnn/physicists.html http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.jlab.org/~hleiqawi/6quarks.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.jlab.org/~hleiqawi/particlephysics.html&h=391&w=700&sz=19&hl=en&start=9&um=1&tbnid=mp9ey9iiRMxZOM:&tbnh=78&tbnw=140&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dleptons%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26rlz%3D1T4GFRC_enUS212US212%26sa%3DN

The Classical Atomic Model Consider an atom as a planetary system. Like gravity, the force on the electron an inverse-square-law force. This is good. Now, by Newton’s 2nd Law: where v is the tangential velocity of the electron: So: Kinetic energy This is negative, so the system is bound, which is good. The potential energy is: The total energy is then:

The planetary atom will emit light of a particular frequency. An electron in an orbit will emit a light wave at the orbital frequency. Like planets in the solar system, the electron’s orbital frequency will vary according to the electron’s distance from the nucleus. So this model could, in principle, explain atoms’ discrete spectra. But all frequencies seem possible…

The Planetary Model is Doomed! Because an accelerated electric charge continually radiates energy (electromagnetic radiation), the total energy must continually decrease. So the electron radius must continually decrease! The electron crashes into the nucleus! Physics had reached a turning point in 1900 with Planck’s hypothesis of the quantum behavior of radiation, so a radical solution would be considered possible.

The Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom Bohr’s general assumptions: 1. Electrons reside in stationary states, and do not radiate energy. They have well-defined energies, En. Transitions can occur between them, yielding light of energy: E = En − En’ = hn n = 1 n = 3 n = 2 En > En’ : Emission En < En’ : Absorption 2. Classical laws of physics do not apply to transitions between stationary states, but they do apply elsewhere. Angular momentum is quantized! 3. The angular momentum of the nth state is: nħ where n is called the Principal Quantum Number.

Consequences of the Bohr Model The angular momentum is: a0 So the velocity is: But: So: Solving for rn: where: a0 is called the Bohr radius. It’s ½ the diameter of the Hydrogen atom (in its lowest-energy, or ground, state).

Bohr Radius The Bohr radius, is the radius of the ground state of the Hydrogen atom: The ground state of the Hydrogen atom has a diameter:

The Hydrogen Atom Energies Use the classical result for the energy: and: So the energies of the stationary states are: or: En = - E0/n2 where E0 = 13.6 eV.

The Hydrogen Atom Emission of light occurs when the atom is in an excited state and decays to a lower energy state (nu → nℓ). where n is the frequency of a photon. R∞ is the Rydberg constant.