CHAPTER 5 LEARNING Introductory Psychology Concepts Professor Veronica Emiia Nuzzolo © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Learning: A Relatively Permanent Change In Behavior Caused By Experience Or Practice. A man who carries a cat by the tail learns something that he can learn in no other way. —Mark Twain

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Classical Conditioning: The Association Of Two Stimuli In The Environment. Does the mere sight of the golden arches in front of McDonald’s make you feel pangs of hunger and think about hamburgers? If it does, you are displaying an elementary form of learning called classical conditioning.

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Ivan Pavlov + Russian physiologist, never intended to do psychological research. + Won the Nobel Prize for his work on digestion (1904). + Remembered for his experiments on basic learning process, not for his experiments on physiology. Ivan Pavlov (center) developed the principles of classical conditioning. Feldman 184

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Pavlov’s Classic Experiment: Salivating Dogs (1927) Before conditioning, the ringing of a bell does not bring about salivation— making the bell a neutral stimulus. Feldman 185

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Pavlov’s Classic Experiment: Salivating Dogs (1927) Feldman 185 In contrast, meat naturally brings about salivation, making the meat an unconditioned stimulus and salivation an unconditioned response.

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Pavlov’s Classic Experiment: Salivating Dogs (1927) During conditioning, the bell is rung just before the presentation of the meat.

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Pavlov’s Classic Experiment: Salivating Dogs (1927) Eventually, the ringing of the bell alone brings about salivation.

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Classical Conditioning Paradigm UCS: Unconditioned Stimulus A stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned.

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Classical Conditioning Paradigm UCS: Unconditioned Stimulus A stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned. UCR: Unconditioned Response A response that is natural and needs no training.

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Classical Conditioning Paradigm UCS: Unconditioned Stimulus A stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned. UCR: Unconditioned Response A response that is natural and needs no training. CS: Conditioned Stimulus A once-neutral stimulus that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus to bring about a response formerly caused only by the unconditioned stimulus

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Classical Conditioning Paradigm UCS: Unconditioned Stimulus A stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned. UCR: Unconditioned Response A response that is natural and needs no training. CS: Conditioned Stimulus A once-neutral stimulus that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus to bring about a response formerly caused only by the unconditioned stimulus CR: Conditioned Response A response that, after conditioning, follows a previously neutral stimulus.

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Operant Conditioning: Behavior Followed By A Consequence The Skinner box is a chamber with a highly controlled environment, used to study operant conditioning processes with laboratory animals. Animals press levers in response to stimuli in order to receive “rewards”. Feldman 192

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Reinforcement and Punishment: Positive and negative types When stimulus is added, the result is . . . Positive Reinforcement Intended Results Increase in behavior (reinforcement) Feldman 195 Example: Giving a raise for good performance. Results: INCREASE in response of good performance.

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Reinforcement and Punishment: Positive and negative types When stimulus is added, the result is . . . Positive Punishment Intended Results Decrease in behavior (punishment) Feldman 195 Example: Yelling at a teenager for stealing a bracelet. Results: DECREASE in frequency of response of stealing.

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Reinforcement and Punishment: Positive and negative types When stimulus is removed, the result is . . . Negative Reinforcement Intended Results Increase in behavior (reinforcement) Feldman 195 Example: Applying ointment to relieve itchy rash leads to higher future likelihood of applying ointment. Results: INCREASE in response of using ointment

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Reinforcement and Punishment: Positive and negative types When stimulus is removed, the result is . . . Negative Punishment Intended Results Decrease in behavior (punishment) Feldman 195 Example: Teenager’s access to car restricted by parents due to teenager’s breaking curfew. Results: DECREASE in response of breaking curfew.

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Schedules of Reinforcement: Different Patterns Of Frequency and Timing Of Reinforcement Following Desired Behavior Continuous Reinforcement Schedule: Reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs. Prior experience has taught us that a candy machine delivers reinforcement (candy) every time we put in the appropriate amount of money. If the candy machine were broken, it would not take very long before we stopped depositing coins.

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Schedules of Reinforcement: Different Patterns Of Frequency and Timing Of Reinforcement Following Desired Behavior Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement Schedule: Reinforcing a behavior some but not all of the time. Prior experience with a slot machine has taught us that after putting in our cash, most of the time we will not receive anything in return. At the same time, we know that we will occasionally win something. In comparison with the candy machine—If the slot machine were broken, we would drop in money for a considerably longer time, even though there would be no payoff.

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Partial Reinforcement Schedules: Fixed-Ratio Schedule: A schedule by which reinforcement is given only after a specific number of responses are made. Typical Outcome: Short pauses occur after each response. Because the more responses, the more reinforcement, fixed-ratio schedules produce a high rate of responding. Cumulative frequency of responses There are short pauses after each response. Time

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Partial Reinforcement Schedules: Variable-Ratio Schedule: A schedule by which reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses rather than after a fixed number. Typical Outcome: Responding occurs at a high rate. Responding occurs at a high, steady rate. Cumulative frequency of responses Time

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Partial Reinforcement Schedules: Fixed-Interval Schedule: Reinforcement for a response occurs only if a fixed time period has elapsed, making overall rates of response relatively low. Typical Outcome: Produces lower rates of responding, especially just after reinforcement has been presented. (The organism learns that a specified time period must elapse between reinforcements.) There are typically long pauses after each response. Cumulative frequency of responses Time

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Partial Reinforcement Schedules: Variable-Interval Schedule: A schedule by which the time between reinforcements varies around some average rather than being fixed. Typical Outcome: Produces a fairly steady stream of responses. Cumulative frequency of responses Responding occurs at a steady rate. Time

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Laws of Learning Acquisition (conditioned response and unconditioned response presented together) STRONG Strength of Conditioned Response (CR) Feldman 187 Training CS alone Pause Spontaneous recovery WEAK TIME

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Laws of Learning Extinction (conditioned stimulus by itself) A basic phenomenon of learning that occurs when a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and eventually disappears. Acquisition STRONG Strength of Conditioned Response (CR) Feldman 187 Training CS alone Pause Spontaneous recovery WEAK TIME

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Laws of Learning Spontaneous Recovery The reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest and with no further conditioning. Acquisition Extinction STRONG Spontaneous recovery of conditioned response Extinction follows (conditioned stimulus alone) Strength of Conditioned Response (CR) Feldman 187 Training CS alone Pause Spontaneous recovery WEAK TIME

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Laws of Learning Stimulus Generalization Occurs when a conditioned response follows a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus The more similar the two stimuli are, the more likely generalization is to occur. Stimulus Discrimination The process that occurs if two stimuli are sufficiently distinct from one another that one evokes a conditioned response but the other does not; The ability to differentiate between stimuli.

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Cognitive Learning: Learning That Requires Cognition And Thought Processes Cognitive Learning Theory An approach to the study of learning that focuses on the thought processes that underlie learning. Challenges the stimulus-response (S-R) model, Argues that in between stimulus and response there is the organism’s (O) view of the world (S-O-R).

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Tolman and Latent Learning: Learning That Remains Hidden Until It Becomes Useful Tolman’s Demonstration + Rats were allowed to roam through a maze once a day for seventeen days. + One group was reinforced with food every time they reached the end of the maze + One group never received reinforcement. + The experimental group received food reinforcement on day 11. Feldman 208a Feldman 208

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Tolman and Latent Learning: Learning That Remains Hidden Until It Becomes Useful Tolman’s Results + Unrewarded control group consistently made the most errors. + Rewarded control group made far fewer errors. + Experimental group showed immediate reduction in errors after they began receiving reward. This suggests that the experimental group had learned the maze prior to the introduction of reinforcement.

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Kohler and Insight: Sudden Perceptions of Relationships Allowing For Rapid Problem Solving In the 1920’s, German psychologist Wolfgang Kohler exposed chimpanzees to novel learning tasks and concluded that they were able to learn by insight. Sultan the chimpanzee seems to study the hanging bananas that are out of reach. Passer 221

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Kohler and Insight: Sudden Perceptions of Relationships Allowing For Rapid Problem Solving After looking around, Sultan suddenly grabs some crates, and stacks them . . .

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Kohler and Insight: Sudden Perceptions of Relationships Allowing For Rapid Problem Solving Sultan obtains his tasty reward.

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Observational Learning: learning through watching others In Bandura’s (1965) experiment, most children who watched an aggressive model attack a Bobo doll later imitated that behavior.

Classical Conditioning: the association of two stimuli in the environment. Does the mere sight of the golden arches in front of McDonald’s makes you feel pangs of hunger and think about hamburgers? If it does, you are displaying an elementary form of learning called classical conditioning. http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.etribes.com/sites/etribes.com/files/images/the%2520golden%2520arches.thumbnail.JPG&imgrefurl=http://www.etribes.com/markstowe%3Ffrom%3D20&h=180&w=240&sz=10&hl=en&start=1&tbnid=NJQZBkO9JhhLNM:&tbnh=83&tbnw=110&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dmacdonalds%2Bgolden%2Barches%26gbv%3D2%26svnum%3D10%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG

Ivan Pavlov + Russian physiologist, never intended to do psychological research. + Won the Nobel Prize for his work on digestion (1904). + Remembered for his experiments on basic learning process, not for his experiments on physiology. Ivan Pavlov (center) developed the principles of classical conditioning.

Pavlov’s Classic Experiment: Salivating Dogs (1927) Before conditioning, the ringing of a bell does not bring about salivation— making the bell a neutral stimulus. Feldman 185

Pavlov’s Classic Experiment: Salivating Dogs (1927) Feldman 185 In contrast, meat naturally brings about salivation, making the meat an unconditioned stimulus and salivation an unconditioned response.

Pavlov’s Classic Experiment: Salivating Dogs (1927) During conditioning, the bell is rung just before the presentation of the meat.

Pavlov’s Classic Experiment: Salivating Dogs (1927) Eventually, the ringing of the bell alone brings about salivation.

Classical Conditioning Paradigm UCS: Unconditioned Stimulus A stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned.

Classical Conditioning Paradigm UCS: Unconditioned Stimulus A stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned. UCR: Unconditioned Response A response that is natural and needs no training.

Classical Conditioning Paradigm UCS: Unconditioned Stimulus A stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned. UCR: Unconditioned Response A response that is natural and needs no training. CS: Conditioned Stimulus A once-neutral stimulus that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus to bring about a response formerly caused only by the unconditioned stimulus

Classical Conditioning Paradigm UCS: Unconditioned Stimulus A stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned. UCR: Unconditioned Response A response that is natural and needs no training. CS: Conditioned Stimulus A once-neutral stimulus that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus to bring about a response formerly caused only by the unconditioned stimulus CR: Conditioned Response A response that, after conditioning, follows a previously neutral stimulus.

Strength of Conditioned Laws of Learning Acquisition (conditioned response and unconditioned response presented together) STRONG Strength of Conditioned Response (CR) Feldman 187 Training CS alone Pause Spontaneous recovery WEAK TIME

Strength of Conditioned Laws of Learning Extinction (conditioned stimulus by itself) A basic phenomenon of learning that occurs when a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and eventually disappears. Acquisition STRONG Strength of Conditioned Response (CR) Feldman 187 Training CS alone Pause Spontaneous recovery WEAK TIME

Strength of Conditioned Laws of Learning Spontaneous Recovery The reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest and with no further conditioning. Acquisition Extinction STRONG Spontaneous recovery of conditioned response Extinction follows (conditioned stimulus alone) Strength of Conditioned Response (CR) Feldman 187 Training CS alone Pause Spontaneous recovery WEAK TIME

Applied Classical Conditioning Watson and “Little Albert” (1920) John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner set out to obtain evidence that fear could be conditioned. Passer 200 Photo removed

Applied Classical Conditioning Conditioned Taste Aversion + If every time you ate peanuts you had an upset stomach several hours later, you would eventually learn to avoid peanuts, despite the time-lapse between the stimulus of peanuts and response of getting ill. + In fact, you might develop a conditioned taste aversion, so that peanuts no longer even tasted good to you. + Taste aversion can also occur with a single incident—you get the flu after eating a burrito and so don’t want to eat them again.

Applied Classical Conditioning Biological Preparedness + Organisms that ingest unpalatable foods are likely to avoid similar foods in the future, making their survival more likely. (Steinmetz, Kim, & Thompson, 2003; Cox et al., 2004). Feldman 189 Because of prior experience with meat that had been laced with mild poison, this coyote does not obey its natural instincts and ignores what would otherwise be a tasty meal.

Operant Conditioning: Behavior followed by a consequence The Skinner box is a chamber with a highly controlled environment, used to study operant conditioning processes with laboratory animals.

Reinforcement and Punishment: Positive and negative types When stimulus is added, the result is . . . Positive Reinforcement Intended Results Increase in behavior (reinforcement) Feldman 195 Example: Giving a raise for good performance. Results: INCREASE in response of good performance.

Reinforcement and Punishment: Positive and negative types When stimulus is added, the result is . . . Positive Punishment Intended Results Decrease in behavior (punishment) Feldman 195 Example: Yelling at a teenager for stealing a bracelet. Results: DECREASE in frequency of response of stealing.

Reinforcement and Punishment: Positive and negative types When stimulus is removed, the result is . . . Negative Reinforcement Intended Results Increase in behavior (reinforcement) Feldman 195 Example: Applying ointment to relieve itchy rash leads to higher future likelihood of applying ointment. Results: INCREASE in response of using ointment

Reinforcement and Punishment: Positive and negative types When stimulus is removed, the result is . . . Negative Punishment Intended Results Decrease in behavior (punishment) Feldman 195 Example: Teenager’s access to car restricted by parents due to teenager’s breaking curfew. Results: DECREASE in response of breaking curfew.

Schedules of Reinforcement: Different patterns of frequency and timing of reinforcement following desired behavior. Continuous Reinforcement Schedule: Reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs. Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement Schedule: Reinforcing a behavior some but not all of the time.

Partial Reinforcement Schedules: Fixed-Ratio Schedule: A schedule by which reinforcement is given only after a specific number of responses are made. Typical Outcome: Short pauses occur after each response. Because the more responses, the more reinforcement, fixed-ratio schedules produce a high rate of responding. Cumulative frequency of responses There are short pauses after each response. Time

Partial Reinforcement Schedules: Variable-Ratio Schedule: A schedule by which reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses rather than after a fixed number. Typical Outcome: Responding occurs at a high rate. Responding occurs at a high, steady rate. Cumulative frequency of responses Time

Partial Reinforcement Schedules: Fixed-Interval Schedule: A schedule that provides reinforcement for a response only if a fixed time period has elapsed, making overall rates of response relatively low. Typical Outcome: Produces lower rates of responding, especially just after reinforcement has been presented. (The organism learns that a specified time period must elapse between reinforcements.) There are typically long pauses after each response. Cumulative frequency of responses Time

Partial Reinforcement Schedules: Variable-Interval Schedule: A schedule by which the time between reinforcements varies around some average rather than being fixed. Typical Outcome: Produces a fairly steady stream of responses. Cumulative frequency of responses Responding occurs at a steady rate. Time

Strength of Conditioned Laws of Learning Acquisition (conditioned response and unconditioned response presented together) STRONG Strength of Conditioned Response (CR) Feldman 187 Training CS alone Pause Spontaneous recovery WEAK TIME

Strength of Conditioned Laws of Learning Extinction (conditioned stimulus by itself) A basic phenomenon of learning that occurs when a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and eventually disappears. Acquisition STRONG Strength of Conditioned Response (CR) Training CS alone Pause Spontaneous recovery WEAK TIME

Strength of Conditioned Laws of Learning Spontaneous Recovery The reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest and with no further conditioning. Acquisition Extinction STRONG Spontaneous recovery of conditioned response Extinction follows (conditioned stimulus alone) Strength of Conditioned Response (CR) Training CS alone Pause Spontaneous recovery WEAK TIME

Stimulus Generalization Laws of Learning Stimulus Generalization Occurs when a conditioned response follows a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus The more similar the two stimuli are, the more likely generalization is to occur.

Stimulus Generalization Laws of Learning Stimulus Generalization Occurs when a conditioned response follows a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus; The more similar the two stimuli are, the more likely generalization is to occur. Stimulus Discrimination The process that occurs when two stimuli are sufficiently distinct from one another that one evokes a conditioned response but the other does not The ability to differentiate between stimuli.

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Theories Classical Conditioning: the association of two stimuli in the environment. Does the mere sight of the golden arches in front of McDonald’s make you feel pangs of hunger and think about hamburgers? If it does, you are displaying an elementary form of learning called classical conditioning.

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Theories Classical Conditioning Paradigm UCS: Unconditioned Stimulus A stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned.

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Theories Classical Conditioning Paradigm UCS: Unconditioned Stimulus A stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned. UCR: Unconditioned Response A response that is natural and needs no training.

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Theories Classical Conditioning Paradigm UCS: Unconditioned Stimulus A stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned. UCR: Unconditioned Response A response that is natural and needs no training. CS: Conditioned Stimulus A once-neutral stimulus that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus to bring about a response formerly caused only by the unconditioned stimulus

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Theories Classical Conditioning Paradigm UCS: Unconditioned Stimulus A stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned. UCR: Unconditioned Response A response that is natural and needs no training. CS: Conditioned Stimulus A once-neutral stimulus that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus to bring about a response formerly caused only by the unconditioned stimulus CR: Conditioned Response A response that, after conditioning, follows a previously neutral stimulus.

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Theories Operant Conditioning: Behavior Followed By A Consequence The Skinner box is a chamber with a highly controlled environment, used to study operant conditioning processes with laboratory animals. Animals press levers in response to stimuli in order to receive “rewards”.

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Theories Cognitive Learning: Learning that requires cognition and thought processes Cognitive Learning Theory + An approach to the study of learning that focuses on the thought processes that underlie learning. + Challenges the stimulus-response (S-R) model, arguing that in between stimulus and response there is the organism’s (O) view of the world (S-O-R).

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Learning Theories Observational Learning: Learning through watching others In Bandura’s (1965) experiment, most children who watched an aggressive model attack a Bobo doll later imitated that behavior.

Reinforcement: The process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated. What makes something a reinforcer depends on individual preferences. The only way to know if a stimulus is a reinforcer for a particular organism is to observe whether the frequency of a previously occurring behavior increases after the presentation of the stimulus.

Positive reinforcement occurs when a response is strengthened by the subsequent presentation of a stimulus. The stimulus that follows and strengthens the response is called a positive reinforcer. A rat receives food pellets when it presses a lever and eventually begins to press the lever more often. Food pellets are a positive reinforcer because they increase the rat’s frequency of lever pressing.

Rewarding Stimulus Provided Positive Reinforcement Rewarding Stimulus Provided Behavior Future Behavior You turn in homework on time. Teacher praises your performance. You increasingly turn in homework on time. You wax your skis. The skis go faster. You wax your skis the next time you go skiing. You randomly press a button on the dashboard of a friend’s car. Great music begins to play. You deliberately press the button again the next time you get into the car.

The term reward is often misused as a synonym for the term positive reinforcer. Behaviorists prefer positive reinforcer because it focuses on how consequences affect behavior. Intended Results: Increase in behavior (reinforcement) When stimulus is added, the result is . . . Positive Reinforcement Example: Giving a raise for good performance. Results: INCREASE in response of good performance.

Primary and Secondary Reinforcers Psychologists distinguish between two broad types of positive reinforcers. Primary reinforcers are stimuli, such as food and water, that an organism naturally finds reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs. Secondary (conditioned) reinforcers are stimuli that acquire reinforcing properties through their association with primary reinforcers. Money is a conditioned reinforcer. Similarly, chimpanzees learn to value, work for, and even hoard tokens that they can place into a vending machine to obtain raisins.

Negative Reinforcement: Taking away something you do not like Negative Reinforcement in Everyday Life Situation Behavior Consequence Muscles ache Sunlight is uncomfortably bright You feel hungry, thirsty Neighbor’s music is too loud It starts to pour Alarm clock rings Parent nags child to clean room Take hot bath Put on sunglasses Eat, drink something Ask neighbor to lower music Open an umbrella Hit the off button Child cleans room Muscle ache decreases Discomfort is reduced Hunger, thirst decrease Music is less disruptive You stay dry Annoying ringing stops Nagging stops Passer 206 (reinforcement grid)

Reinforcement and Punishment: Positive and Negative Types When stimulus is added, the result is . . . Positive Reinforcement Intended Results Increase in behavior (reinforcement) Feldman 195 Example: Giving a raise for good performance. Results: INCREASE in response of good performance.

Reinforcement and Punishment: Positive and Negative Types When stimulus is added, the result is . . . Positive Punishment Intended Results Decrease in behavior (punishment) Feldman 195 Example: Yelling at a teenager for stealing a bracelet. Results: DECREASE in frequency of response of stealing.

Reinforcement and Punishment: Positive and Negative Types When stimulus is removed, the result is . . . Negative Reinforcement Intended Results Increase in behavior (reinforcement) Feldman 195 Example: Applying ointment to relieve itchy rash leads to higher future likelihood of applying ointment. Results: INCREASE in response of using ointment

Reinforcement and Punishment: Positive and Negative Types When stimulus is removed, the result is . . . Negative Punishment Intended Results Decrease in behavior (punishment) Feldman 195 Example: Teenager’s access to car restricted by parents due to teenager’s breaking curfew. Results: DECREASE in response of breaking curfew.

Schedules of Reinforcement: Different patterns of frequency and timing of reinforcement following desired behavior. Continuous Reinforcement Schedule: Reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs. Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement Schedule: Reinforcing a behavior some but not all of the time.

Partial Reinforcement Schedules: Fixed-Ratio Schedule: A schedule by which reinforcement is given only after a specific number of responses are made. Typical Outcome: Short pauses occur after each response. Because the more responses, the more reinforcement, fixed-ratio schedules produce a high rate of responding. Cumulative frequency of responses There are short pauses after each response. Time

Partial Reinforcement Schedules: Variable-Ratio Schedule: A schedule by which reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses rather than after a fixed number. Typical Outcome: Responding occurs at a high rate. Responding occurs at a high, steady rate. Cumulative frequency of responses Time

Partial Reinforcement Schedules: Fixed-Interval Schedule: A schedule that provides reinforcement for a response only if a fixed time period has elapsed, making overall rates of response relatively low. Typical Outcome: Produces lower rates of responding, especially just after reinforcement has been presented. (The organism learns that a specified time period must elapse between reinforcements.) There are typically long pauses after each response. Cumulative frequency of responses Time

Partial Reinforcement Schedules: Variable-Interval Schedule: A schedule by which the time between reinforcements varies around some average rather than being fixed. Typical Outcome: Produces a fairly steady stream of responses. Cumulative frequency of responses Responding occurs at a steady rate. Time

Negative Reinforcement: Termination of a stimulus which increases the probability of a response. Process Behavior Consequence Result Negative Reinforcement Response Occurs An aversive stimulus is removed Response increases (Person takes aspirin) (Headache pain goes away) (Increased tendency to take aspirin for headache relief) Passer 205 (reinforcement grid)

Punishment: A stimulus following a response that makes a second response less likely. Punishment by Application: Response is followed by an unpleasant stimulus. Process Behavior Consequence Result Aversive punishment (positive punishment) Response Occurs An aversive stimulus is presented Response decreases (Two siblings fight over a toy) (Parents scold or spank them) (Fighting decreases)

Punishment: A stimulus following a response that makes a second response less likely. Punishment by Removal: Response is followed by the removal of a pleasant stimulus. Process Behavior Consequence Result Response cost (negative punishment) Response Occurs A stimulus is removed Response decreases Passer 205 (reinforcement grid) (Two siblings fight over a toy) (No TV for 1 week) (Fighting decreases)

Aggressive Punishment: Can act as a model for aggressive behavior Laboratory experiments indicate that children learn aggressive behaviors by watching aggressive adult models (Bandura, 1965).

Only temporarily changes behavior. Punishment: Only temporarily changes behavior. Punishment is frequently ineffective when it is not delivered shortly after the undesired behavior the individual is able to leave the setting in which the punishment is being given. Punishment can reduce the self-esteem of recipients unless they can understand the reasons for it. Punishment does not convey any information about what an alternative, more appropriate behavior might be.