Cognitive Development in Middle and Late Childhood Children 13 Cognitive Development in Middle and Late Childhood John W. Santrock

Cognitive Development in Middle and Late Childhood What Is Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development in Middle and Late Childhood? What Is the Nature of Children’s Information Processing? How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described? What Characterizes Children’s Achievement? What Changes in Language Development Occur in Middle and Late Childhood?

Concrete Operational Thought What Is Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development in Middle and Late Childhood? Concrete Operational Thought Ability to classify or divide things into different sets or subsets and to consider their interrelationships Ability to do reversible mental actions on real, concrete objects Ability to focus on more than single property of an object

Concrete Operational Thought What Is Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development in Middle and Late Childhood? Concrete Operational Thought Seriation: ability to order stimuli along a quantitative dimension Transitivity: the ability to logically combine relations to understand certain conclusions

Classification: An Important Ability in Concrete Operational Thought A family tree of 4 generations; a preoperational child has trouble classifying the members Fig. 13.1

Piaget and Education Take constructivist approach What Is Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development in Middle and Late Childhood? Piaget and Education Take constructivist approach Facilitate rather than direct learning Consider child’s knowledge and level of thinking Use ongoing assessment Promote student’s intellectual health Turn classroom into setting of exploration and discovery

Evaluating Piaget’s Theory What Is Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development in Middle and Late Childhood? Evaluating Piaget’s Theory Contributions Founded children’s cognitive development View of children as active, constructive thinkers Inventive ways to discover how children act and adapt Criticisms Cognitive abilities can emerge earlier or later Stages not unitary structures of thought Some can be trained to reason at higher stage Culture and education exert stronger influence

Neo-Piagetians Argue Piaget got some things right What Is Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development in Middle and Late Childhood? Neo-Piagetians Argue Piaget got some things right Reinterpret information-processing perspective More emphasis on attention and memory Important to consider children’s strategies

Memory Long-term memory Relatively permanent; has huge capacity What Is the Nature of Children’s Information Processing? Memory Long-term memory Relatively permanent; has huge capacity Process guided by schemas Fuzzy trace theory: Verbatim memory trace: precise details Gist: central idea of information

Central Knowledge and Expertise What Is the Nature of Children’s Information Processing? Central Knowledge and Expertise Knowledge and Expertise Superior recall of details and patterns Accumulate and organize information for understanding of topic (i.e., chunking)

What Is the Nature of Children’s Information Processing? Strategies Cognitive processes that do not occur automatically but require work and effort Organization Elaboration Imagery

Critical Thinking Grasping deeper meaning of ideas What Is the Nature of Children’s Information Processing? Critical Thinking Grasping deeper meaning of ideas Keeping an open mind Deciding for oneself

Critical Thinking Ask what happened, how, and why What Is the Nature of Children’s Information Processing? Critical Thinking Ask what happened, how, and why Ask questions, look beyond the known, create new ideas and information Recognize that more than one answer may exist Examine supposed “facts” closely Compare various answers; select best one Evaluate what is said before accepting it as truth

Stimulating Critical Thinking What Is the Nature of Children’s Information Processing? Stimulating Critical Thinking Discuss controversial topics Open-mindedness Intellectual curiosity Planning and strategy Intellectual carefulness

Creative Thinking Intelligence and creativity What Is the Nature of Children’s Information Processing? Creative Thinking Intelligence and creativity Many highly intelligent children are not creative Most creative children are quite intelligent

Creative Thinking Creativity Convergent thinking Divergent thinking What Is the Nature of Children’s Information Processing? Creative Thinking Divergent thinking Convergent thinking Creativity Produces many answers to the same question and is characteristic of creativity Produces one correct answer; is characteristic of kind of thinking tested by standardized intelligence tests Ability to think in novel and unusual ways and come up with unique solutions to problems

Strategies Promoting Creativity What Is the Nature of Children’s Information Processing? Strategies Promoting Creativity Foster flexible and playful thinking Introduce children to creative people Provide stimulating environments Encourage internal motivation Don’t overcontrol Brainstorming

Scientific Thinking Often aims to identify causal relations What Is the Nature of Children’s Information Processing? Scientific Thinking Often aims to identify causal relations Preadolescents have greater difficulty separating prior theories from evidence More influenced by happenstance events than by overall pattern of occurrences

Metacognition Cognition about cognition Knowing about knowing What Is the Nature of Children’s Information Processing? Metacognition Cognition about cognition Knowing about knowing Children 5 to 6 years of age don’t understand: Related items easier to remember Gist of a story is easier than remembering information verbatim

What Is Intelligence? Verbal ability and problem-solving skills How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described? What Is Intelligence? Verbal ability and problem-solving skills Ability to learn from and adapt to experiences of everyday life Can only be measured indirectly Focus is on individual differences

How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described? The Binet Tests Mental age (MA): measure of an individual’s level of mental development Intelligence quotient (IQ) Normal distribution MA CA X 100 IQ

The Normal Curve and Stanford-Binet IQ Scores How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described? The Normal Curve and Stanford-Binet IQ Scores

How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described? The Wechsler Scales Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence – Revised (WISC-R) Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children – Revised (WISC-R)

The Wechsler Scales Both provide Overall IQ How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described? The Wechsler Scales Both provide Overall IQ Verbal IQ: six verbal subscales Performance IQ: five subscales Patterns of strengths and weaknesses shown

Multiple-factor theory How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described? Factor Approaches Two-factor theory Spearman’s theory that individuals have both general intelligence, g, and specific intelligences Multiple-factor theory Thurstone’s theory that intelligence consists of seven primary mental abilities: verbal comprehension, number ability, word fluency, spatial visualization, associative memory, reasoning, perceptual speed

Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described? Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences Verbal Mathematical Spatial Bodily-Kinesthetic Musical Skills Interpersonal Intrapersonal Naturalist

Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described? Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom Allows students to discover and explore the domains in which they have natural curiosity and talent Gives attention to understanding oneself and others

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described? Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory Three main types of intelligence Analytical Creative Practical

Triarchic Theory in the Classroom How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described? Triarchic Theory in the Classroom Conventional schools prefer analytic ability Few tasks are purely analytic, creative, or practical; some combination required Creative students may be reprimanded or marked down for nonconformist answers

Emotional Intelligence How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described? Emotional Intelligence Ability to perceive and express emotions accurately and adaptively Understand emotion and emotional knowledge Use feelings to facilitate thought Manage emotions in oneself and others

Do People Have One Intelligence or Many Intelligences? How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described? Do People Have One Intelligence or Many Intelligences? Theories of multiple intelligence have much to offer; have motivated educators Existence of general intelligence has support; evidence of specialized abilities Controversy still exists

Heredity and Environment in Intelligence How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described? Heredity and Environment in Intelligence Genetic Influences on intelligence Heritability: fraction of variance in IQ in a population that is attributed to genetics Refers to specific group, not individuals Treats genetic and environment as factors that can be separated

Heredity and Environment in Intelligence How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described? Heredity and Environment in Intelligence Environmental influences on intelligence Environment influences intelligence, are complex, not due to heredity Flynn effect: nothing is guaranteed Culture and ethnicity’s role in intelligence Culture-fair tests - intelligence tests intended to not be culturally biased

Culture and Ethnicity’s Role in Intelligence How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described? Culture and Ethnicity’s Role in Intelligence Cultural bias in testing Development of culture-fair tests No bias intended 1st type: questions familiar to people from all social and ethnic backgrounds 2nd type: no verbal questions

Culture and Ethnicity’s Role in Intelligence How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described? Culture and Ethnicity’s Role in Intelligence Ethnic comparisons Gap narrows in college Criticism of the Bell Curve Cultural-familial retardation Gifted children Have less problems, more mature No relationship to mental disorder

How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described? Giftedness Above-average intelligence and superior talent for something Precocity March to their own drummer Passion to master

What Characterizes Children’s Achievement? Achievement motivation (need for achievement) Desire to accomplish something Reach standard of excellence Expend effort to excel

Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation What Characterizes Children’s Achievement? Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation Extrinsic motivation External incentives such as rewards and punishments Intrinsic motivation Internal factors such as self-determination, curiosity, challenge, and effort

Mastery Orientation Helpless orientation Mastery orientation What Characterizes Children’s Achievement? Mastery Orientation Helpless orientation Attribute difficulty to lack of ability Mastery orientation Task oriented; concern with learning strategies and process of achievement Performance orientation Focus only on winning

What Characterizes Children’s Achievement? Self-Efficacy Belief that one can master situation and produce favorable outcomes Critical factor in achievement Linked to intrinsic motivation

Goal-Setting, Planning, and Self-Regulation What Characterizes Children’s Achievement? Goal-Setting, Planning, and Self-Regulation Self-efficacy and achievement improve when individuals set goals that are Specific Proximal Challenging

Ethnicity and Achievement What Characterizes Children’s Achievement? Ethnicity and Achievement Diversity among ethnic minority children Important to distinguish difference from deficiency May be just culturally different from White, middle-class standards SES more important than ethnicity Racial prejudice and poor schools exist

International Achievement Comparisons Cultural differences U.S. students perform badly in math and science tests Gap widens with age Asian teachers spend more time on math U.S. parents have lower math expectations

Vocabulary and Grammar Reading and writing have prominent role in language Learn to use in more complex ways Metalinguistic awareness Allows children to think about their language Use language in culturally appropriate ways

Whole-language approach What Changes in Language Development Occur in Middle and Late Childhood? Reading Whole-language approach Instruction should parallel children’s natural language learning; reading materials should be whole and meaningful Basic-skills- and-phonetics approach Stresses phonetics and basic rules for translating symbols into sounds; early reading instruction should involve simplified materials

Bilingualism Ability to speak two languages What Changes in Language Development Occur in Middle and Late Childhood? Bilingualism Ability to speak two languages Learning 2nd language easier for children Child’s ability to pronounce 2nd language with correct accent decreases with age Bilingualism has positive effect on children’s cognitive development Bilingual education

Children 13 The End