Laboratory Management The Decision-Making Process & Problem-Solving

Introduction During an interview, a reporter once asked a successful executive manager: What the secret to his success was? The executive manager replied by “Two words” “Right decisions” The reporter asked How are right decisions made? The executive manager replied by “One word” “Experience” But how did you get this experience?” asked the reporter. The executive manager replied by “Two words,” “Wrong decisions”

Introduction The most important skill that have an impact on the effectiveness of a laboratory supervisor is his decision-making ability The decision is the core of administrative action Any administrative activity, planning, organizing, directing or controlling requires the manager to be a decision-maker

Introduction Decisions are made by all levels of management with resource responsibility. In fact, all organizational activities can be looked at as a series of decisions Managerial decision-making is the selection of a preferred course of action from two or more alternatives.

What Is Decision Making? Decision making is the act of choosing one alternative from among a set of alternatives. Essential in this definition is an awareness that: Alternatives need to be developed and considered, A decision needs to be made “best” alternative and Best alternative is implemented

Types of Decisions Decisions can be studied and classified from a number of perspectives. Some decisions are strategic or tactical The strategic decisions focusing on the means to reach a goal, Examples include mergers, expansions into new markets, and off-site testing facilities The tactical decisions focusing on steps or objectives to be accomplished steps for implementing the organizational strategy

Types of Decisions Some decisions are administrative or operational requiring substantial resource commitment Operational: dealing with day-to-day activities

Types of Decisions Some decisions are Programmed or nonprogrammed Programmed because they are routine and repetitive in nature The decision to reorder supplies and reagents for the laboratory is a programmed decision Programmed decisions are guided by rules, policies, and procedures Other are termed nonprogrammed because they are novel and unstructured Because they occur infrequently Situations that have never arisen exactly like the present or are very complex usually do not have procedures to guide the decision-making process

Types of Decisions These 3 classes of decisions are in fact interdigitate with each other The decision to start performing molecular biology tests at the Lab. Dep. Includes the 3 classes of decisions Administrative: needs huge resources Operational Non-programmed

1- AREAS OF CONCERN IN DECISION - MAKING Before attempting to make any management decision, there are several areas of concern to which a laboratory manager must be precise Quality of the decision Acceptance of and commitment to the decision The speed of the decision The nature of the value judgments on the decision The cost of the decision value judgments: an assessment of something as good or bad in terms of one's standards or priorities. طبيعة حكم الشخص علي الأشياء

1- AREAS OF CONCERN IN DECISION - MAKING A- Quality of the decision In order to make a quality decision, the manager must have the appropriate information The creative talents of several people are beneficial in generating possible alternatives Seeking specific skills necessary to complement a given alternative Seeking ideas of peers, subordinates and superiors to gain a broader point of view

1- AREAS OF CONCERN IN DECISION - MAKING B- Acceptance of and commitment to the decision This is fundamental to management, which must get things done through people Commitment is essential on the part of those who must implement the decision There are times it is appropriate to involve the laboratory staff in the decision- making process will result in added quality to the decision, increase the acceptance and commitment Finally, acceptance of the decision by other departments and outside organizations who are affected by is important

1- AREAS OF CONCERN IN DECISION - MAKING C- The speed of the decision The time element must obviously be considered If a decision is to be made immediately, it is unlikely that staff can be involved Even if the decision is not a quick one, the laboratory manager must consider the length of time it will take to involve appropriate parties If the decision process must be accelerated, there is generally a trade-off in quality and acceptance of the decision trade-off: التنازل عن ميزة ممن أجل الحصول على أخرى

1- AREAS OF CONCERN IN DECISION - MAKING D- The nature of the value judgment on the decision All decisions involve a value judgment in terms of what is beneficial or non beneficial and important or non-important in projecting the probable outcomes of the decision There are times when individual goals and organizational goals do not mesh because of differencing value judgments value judgment : a personal opinion about how good or bad someone or something is طبيعة حكم الشخص علي الأشياء projecting the probable outcomes of the decisionإبراز النتائج المحتملة للقرار  X

1- AREAS OF CONCERN IN DECISION - MAKING E- The cost of the decision The use of organizational resources to make decisions costs money The time of the people involved in the decision is an important component Often it is difficult to quantitate the appropriate costs that will yield the best decision in terms of quality, acceptance, speed and values

2- DECISION-MAKING: APPROACHES AND EFFECTS There is a variety of decision-making management styles, ranging from total dictatorship to total abdication Management in the clinical laboratory is full of decisions Some supervisors only make decisions for routine situations, therefore they have a lack of concern about approaches to decision-making These Supervisors more than others need to examine the decision-making process and the effect of various approaches on quality, acceptance, speed, value and cost APPROACHES AND EFFECTS المناهج وتأثيرات

2- DECISION-MAKING: APPROACHES AND EFFECTS Making wise management decisions is not an intuitive skill This skill more than other management skills requires an experiential learning period

2- DECISION-MAKING: APPROACHES AND EFFECTS Some dangerous decision-making habits Breathless decisions  Made on the spur of a moment Making too many is bad sign Signal a failure to plan and resulting in crisis management Contrasted with the breathless decision are the trade-off or hold-off decision habits Solve easy problems and shelf the rest Relevant facts become hidden in a mass of irrelevancies The following Table illustrates a variety of dangerous decision-making habits

Breathless decisions Trade-off decisions Hold-off decisions What You Do Why  Act without thinking  Submit to time pressure  Limit alternatives Succumb to emotion  Overreact Avoid pain  Oversimplify Avoid thinking  Solve the wrong problem     Trade-off decisions  Placate others  Seek harmony  Submit to authority  Focus on tasks, not goals  Solve easy problems  Think short-range  Tolerate partial solutions  Hope to reduce risk of failure  Repeat past mistakes  Desire to conform Hold-off decisions  What You Do  Generate multiple, superficial alternatives Fear of unknown Gather irrelevant facts  Accept unworkable constraints  Hop from problem to problem   Wait for more favorable conditions Rationalize delay Wait for someone else to act 

Approaches to decision-making There are four typical decision-making approaches along the spectrum from dictatorship to abdication Authoritarian Democratic Consensus Laissez-Fair

Approaches to decision-making Authoritarian Laboratory manager views himself as a central authority, more knowledgeable than his staff because he has access to the big picture of the laboratory His communication is one way-down the organizational structure He pays little attention to the ideas and proposals of his staff Decisions of this type are of poor quality, least acceptance and commitment, and least concern for value factors The true worth of this approach in the speed at which a decision is reached because the laboratory manager is the only one involved

Approaches to decision-making Democratic Laboratory manager reach decisions by majority vote There is no polling process, but he personally makes the decision after talking a straw vote The majority will be committed to implement decisions The quality, acceptance, and staff feelings are improved over the authoritarian approach The time taken to reach the decisions is longer straw vote إستطلاع الرأي العام

Approaches to decision-making Consensus All members of the staff are involved The manager works hard at getting all members at least partially agree with decision Manager approaches the alternatives from a logical point of view and avoids arguing his own viewpoint The consensus format yields the highest quality decision, since everyone explains the rationale for his favored alternative This approach will result in increased acceptance and commitment This approach can be time-consuming

Approaches to decision-making Laissez - Fair The manager abdicated from his administrative responsibilities The manager role is supportive but leaves the planning, organizing, directing and controlling of the process up to his staff The manager is only a figurehead, with his staff in control This is the least effective approach, if a quality decision is reached, it will usually be because of the presence of an informal leader

Approaches to decision-making The following table shows how decision -making is related to the four basic functions of a manager: planning, organizing, directing and controlling

Approaches to decision-making

Approaches to decision-making Participation in making decisions always lowers the resistance to decision, but increases the time required to implement them No single decision-making approach is best for all situations To be effective, laboratory manager should vary his decision-making approach depending on the situation Authoritarian approach is the best in an emergency situation The democratic approach is useful when deciding on a color scheme for new laboratory furniture The Consensus approach when deciding who should work various scheduled holidays The abdicating as in the Laissez – Fair approach is perhaps only when decisions regarding a group gathering is being arranged

Approaches to decision-making The effects of various levels of participation on the decision - making process Resistance towards implementation Time to implement High Low Resistance Time Unilateral Decision Full Participation

3- HUMAN FACTORS IN DECISION-MAKING A variety of factors affect the managers approach to decision-making including economic, social, cultural, political as well as human factors 5 factors were described regarding the human factors influences Manager's personal value systems Biases, Attitude, personal beliefs Managers perception of the situation Manager's judgment and creativity will reflect how he perceives the problem or situation requiring a choice

3- HUMAN FACTORS IN DECISION-MAKING Limitations in human processing of information Different capacities for mentally storing and sorting out pits & pieces of information related to the decision at hand Manager is conscious and responsive to Political and power behaviors relative to any given selection The constraint of time Limitation of time available for manager to assess and study the situation before making the decision In conclusion, in any complex decision where personal or behavior factors apply, the individual's preference will dominate the results.

4- Individual versus Group Decision Making Individual versus group decision making has received much attention in the management literature. By appointment to a position, the manager has the authority and power to make certain decisions. If managers were all-knowing and highly creative, and if the workplace was not a complex environment, perhaps the involvement of subordinates in decision making would be less important. But all managers have limitations; the work environment is complex; and some of the necessary information and creativity to reach a high-quality decision resides with the subordinates.

4- Individual versus Group Decision Making Vroom and Jago have shared their insight into the question of whether a decision should be made by the individual manager or with involvement of the affected group of employees. Originally researched by Vroom and Yetton, these insights take into account three criteria: Quality or rationality of the decision, Acceptance or commitment of subordinates to implement the decision, and Time required to make a decision.

4- Individual versus Group Decision Making For example, a manager can make the fairly simple decision of who will staff which holidays simply on a basis of who is available and the number of staff needed. But is this the best decision, the highest-quality decision? Likely not, since certain holidays are more important to some employees than to others. Decisions affecting employees directly often have a quality element that carries over to affect both acceptance and commitment.

4- Individual versus Group Decision Making Vroom and Yetton’s decision-making model It identified seven rules to protect the quality and acceptance of a decision. Adherence to these rules, and guidance about when to involve groups in decision making, are aided by a number of questions shown in the table. Before considering each rule, it is important to answer the first question, “Does the problem possess a quality requirement?” Management decisions are rarely right or wrong in a “black or white” sense; many decisions are simply better than others—hence a higher-quality decision.

Concerns in decision making 4- Individual versus Group Decision Making Vroom and Yetton’s decision-making model Concerns in decision making The fairness rule considers how subordinates will perceive their involvement and opportunity to air and resolve differences in reaching a decision. انسجام: Congruence How subordinates will perceive their involvement and opportunity

4- Individual versus Group Decision Making Vroom and Yetton’s decision-making model Autocratic Type 1 (AI): Leader makes own decision using information that is readily available to him at the time. This type is completely autocratic. Autocratic Type 2 (AII): Leader collects required information from followers, then makes decision alone. Problem or decision may or may not be informed to followers. Here, followers' involvement is just providing information. Consultative Type 1 (CI): Leader shares problem to relevant followers individually and seeks their ideas and suggestions and makes decision alone. Here followers do not meet each other and the leader’s decision may or may not reflect his followers' influence. So, here followers involvement is at the level of providing alternatives individually.

Consultative Type 2 (CII): 4- Individual versus Group Decision Making Vroom and Yetton’s decision-making model Consultative Type 2 (CII): Leader shares problem to relevant followers as a group and seeks their ideas and suggestions and makes decision alone. Here followers meet each other, and through discussions they understand other alternatives. But the leader’s decision may or may not reflect his followers' influence. So, here followers involvement is at the level of helping as a group in decision-making. Group-based Type 2 (GII): Leader discuss problem and situation with followers as a group and seeks their ideas and suggestions through brainstorming. Leader accepts any decision and does not try to force his idea. Decision accepted by the group is the final one.

5- STEPS IN THE PROBLEM - SOLVING PROCESS Problem-solving and decision making are not synonymous They are similar, but problem solving has several sides that separate it as a managerial skill from typical decision making The following Figure graphically describes a brief but comprehensive a flow of events in the problem-solving process:

5- STEPS IN THE PROBLEM - SOLVING PROCESS 1- Definition of the problem 7- Measurement of the consequences 2- Fact gathering 3- Development of alternative solutions 6- Implementation of solution 5- Selection of solution 4- Weighing of alternative solutions

5- STEPS IN THE PROBLEM - SOLVING PROCESS Step 1. Definition of the Problem As in the treatment of disease, therapy only effective if correct diagnosis was made The manager must look beyond the symptoms of the problem and focus on the real issue Often it is a symptom, such as absenteeism, which calls attention to the fact that a problem exists انحرافات بسيطة: هم المشاكل التي يشار إليها باسم "الأخطاء الصارخة"

5- STEPS IN THE PROBLEM - SOLVING PROCESS Symptoms: adverse events or things which are present in an operation but have not yet developed to the point of emerging as basic deviations Basic deviations: they are problems that are referred to as “glaring mistakes” Effect problem: surface problem Causal problems: root problems

5- STEPS IN THE PROBLEM - SOLVING PROCESS Manager who focuses on an effect problem is attempting to achieve a temporary solution whereas addressing a casual problem should prevent recurrence of the deviation Some problems will be inherited Some problems resulting from decisions made elsewhere in the organizational hierarchy Some problems resulting from one's own doing Regardless the origin of the problem, the solution must still be made within the framework of the situation

5- STEPS IN THE PROBLEM - SOLVING PROCESS Step 2. Fact – gathering Once the problem identified, the manager should begin to gather information needed for developing alternative solutions Seeking out the facts surrounding the decision situations, as are constraints and assumptions Constraints are factors that limit the scope of alternatives Assumptions are applied to factors in an effort to simplify the problem and make it solvable Fact gathering requires a search for pertinent information from persons directly involved in the problem, from books, other people and from experts

5- STEPS IN THE PROBLEM - SOLVING PROCESS Step 3. Development of alternative solutions The generation of possible solutions calls for creative thinking Past experience, similarities, differences Past experience can never be fully sufficient in developing alternative solutions but acts as a guide Seeking information from others who solved a similar problem

5- STEPS IN THE PROBLEM - SOLVING PROCESS Step 4. Weighing of alternative solutions Stating the advantages and disadvantages of each alternative How each alternative will effectively accomplish the objectives and requirements of a satisfactory solution Consideration should be given to the question of where a chosen alternative will eliminate reoccurrence of the problem or generate another in its place

5- STEPS IN THE PROBLEM - SOLVING PROCESS Step 5. Selection of solution In choosing solution consider quality, acceptance, speed, value or cost When the decision is made, it is often wise to discuss it with someone who has considerable problem - solving skills

5- STEPS IN THE PROBLEM - SOLVING PROCESS Step 6. Implementation of the solution A critical step The most time consuming If not properly implemented, it is useless Involve those who are directly affected by the problem Inspect the details of the decision and develop necessary procedures Participation by all levels - management and employees alike

5- STEPS IN THE PROBLEM - SOLVING PROCESS Step 7. Measurement of consequences Not all decisions will have the effect that was planned Consequences should be evaluated Problem - solving as a management skill is probably best developed through repeated exposure with guidance in the laboratory setting