Cognitive Development in Middle and Late Childhood Children 12 Cognitive Development in Middle and Late Childhood 1

Concrete Operational Thought What is Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development in Childhood? Concrete Operational Thought Concrete operational stage; ages 7-11 Reversible mental actions applied to real, concrete objects Focus on several characteristics at once Seriation: ability to order stimuli along a quantitative dimension Transitivity: the ability to logically combine relations to understand certain conclusions 2

Classification: An Important Ability in Concrete Operational Thought A family tree of 4 generations; a preoperational child has trouble classifying the members 3

Evaluating Piaget’s Theory What is Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development in Childhood? Evaluating Piaget’s Theory His conclusions have been challenged: Cognitive abilities can emerge earlier/later Stages not unitary structures of thought Some can be trained to reason at higher stage Culture and education exert stronger influence Neo-Piagetians: he got some things right 4

Applications to Education What is Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development in Childhood? Applications to Education Teach children: Take constructivist approach Facilitate rather than direct learning Consider child’s knowledge and level of thinking Use ongoing assessment Promote student’s intellectual health Turn classroom into setting of exploration and discovery 5

Applications to Education What is Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development in Childhood? Applications to Education Applying Vygotsky’s ideas Encourage child to internalize and regulate self-talk Provide opportunities to learn in real-world settings Kamehameha Elementary Education Program (KEEP) Small group activities, ZPD emphasis, question-and-answer format Outcomes are impressive 6

Memory Dramatic improvement in middle/late childhood What is Nature of Children’s Information Processing? Memory Dramatic improvement in middle/late childhood Knowledge and expertise Expert: extensive knowledge in specific area Strategies (aka: control processes) Deliberate mental actions to learn and retain information 7

Thinking Critical thinking Creative thinking What is Nature of Children’s Information Processing? Thinking Critical thinking Thinking reflectively and productively Evaluate evidence, develop deep understanding Successful grades is not indicator of critical thinker Creative thinking Think in novel and unusual ways Produce unique solutions Intelligence and creativity not the same 8

Thinking Creative thinking and intelligence Research: What is Nature of Children’s Information Processing? Thinking Creative thinking and intelligence Convergent thinking – intelligence reflected on conventional tests; produce one correct answer Divergent thinking – creativity; produce many answers for one question Research: No Child Left Behind harms creative thinking; teaching to content of standardized tests 9

Caring for Children Strategies to increase creative thinking What is Nature of Children’s Information Processing? Caring for Children Strategies to increase creative thinking Encourage brainstorming Provide stimulating environments Don’t overcontrol, build child’s confidence Encourage internal motivation Guide child to be persistent, delay gratification Encourage taking intellectual risks Introduce children to creative people 10

Metacognition Cognition about cognition Most focus on metamemory What is Nature of Children’s Information Processing? Metacognition Cognition about cognition Most focus on metamemory Children ages 5 to 6 Familiar, related items easier to remember Gist of a story is easier to remember Focus on knowledge about strategies Effective planning aids problem solving Application of effective strategies is key 11

Intelligence and Its Assessment How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described? Intelligence and Its Assessment Intelligence Problem-solving skills and ability to learn from everyday experiences that allow adaptation Individual differences exist Verbal ability and problem-solving skills Can only be measured indirectly Intelligence tests Binet tests (later Stanford-Binet Tests) 12

Intelligence and Its Assessment How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described? Intelligence and Its Assessment Mental age (MA): measure of an individual’s level of mental development Intelligence quotient (IQ) Normal distribution MA CA X 100 IQ 13

Stanford-Binet IQ Scores The Normal Curve and Stanford-Binet IQ Scores 14

How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described? Types of Intelligence Gardner’s eight types of intelligence (a.k.a. frames of mind) Verbal Mathematical Spatial Bodily-Kinesthetic Everyone has all to varying degrees Musical Interpersonal Intrapersonal Naturalist 15

Evaluating Multiple Intelligences How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described? Evaluating Multiple Intelligences Controversial views Stimulated educators to think more about children’s competencies Motivated new educational program development and assessment Some critics say views go too far Controversy exists: multiple vs. general Culture Conceptual differences exist; cultural values influence what is learned, rewarded 16

Interpreting Differences in IQ Scores How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described? Interpreting Differences in IQ Scores Influence of genetics Comparison of identical and fraternal twins Identical twins: reared together and apart Effects of environmental change Heritability: variance due to genetics Controversial; not without flaws Environment affected by many factors Parenting, education, ongoing change in culture/society, personal experiences 17

Interpreting Differences in IQ Scores How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described? Interpreting Differences in IQ Scores Environmental influences Flynn Effect: IQ scores increasing rapidly Emphasis on prevention, not remedial Early interventions High-quality child care More focus on poor children Continue programs into adolescence Gaps between U.S. racial/ethnic groups Gap narrows in college 18

Interpreting Differences in IQ Scores How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described? Interpreting Differences in IQ Scores Using Intelligence Tests Effectiveness depends on user’s skills Avoid stereotyping and expectations IQ is not sole indicator of competence Use caution in interpreting overall IQ scores Extremes of intelligence Mental retardation (organic, cultural-familial) Giftedness (IQ of 130 or more) 19

Interpreting Differences in IQ Scores How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described? Interpreting Differences in IQ Scores Characteristics of giftedness Three criteria Precocity Marching to their own drummer A passion to master Product of both heredity and environment Currently, controversy over definitions Negative consequences for being ‘gifted’ 20

Vocabulary, Grammar, and Metalinguistic Awareness What Changes in Language Development Occur in Childhood? Vocabulary, Grammar, and Metalinguistic Awareness Children gain new skills in school Alphabetic principle: sounds of language Begin to categorize vocabulary; mastery increases with age Learn to use language in complex manner, producing connected discourse Metalinguistic awareness Knowledge about language Pragmatics: culturally appropriate uses 21

Whole-language approach What Changes in Language Development Occur in Childhood? Reading Whole-language approach Instruction should parallel children’s natural language learning; reading materials should be whole and meaningful Phonetics approach Stresses phonetics and basic rules for translating symbols into sounds; early reading instruction should involve simplified materials 22

Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation What Characterizes Children’s Achievement? Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation Extrinsic: external rewards, punishments Intrinsic: internal desires, perceptions Emphasizes self-determination Motivation can be enhanced Create engaging environments Encourage self-responsibility External and intrinsic can operate together 23

What Characterizes Children’s Achievement? Self- Efficacy Belief that one can master situation and produce favorable outcomes Common with mastery motivation and intrinsic motivation Linked to effort and persistency Critical factor in achievement Self-efficacy influences selection, choices 24

Goal setting, Planning, and Self-regulation What Characterizes Children’s Achievement? Goal setting, Planning, and Self-regulation Self-efficacy and achievement improve when individuals set goals that are: Specific Proximal Challenging Long-term and short-term are needed It is important to: Monitor progress Evaluate outcomes 25