HERBIVORE LOADS CAN BE HEAVY CLOVER – 200 + SPP. CORN – 300+ SPP. APPLES – 400 SPP. AMERICAN ELM – 600+ SPP. OAKS – 1500 SPP. GOLDENROD – 150 SPP.

HERBIVORE LOAD INCLUDES GENERALISTS AND SPECIALISTS 1. MONOPHAGOUS 2. OLIGOPHAGOUS 3. POLYPHAGOUS 4. ALL PLANT PARTS UTILIZED DEFOLIATORS VS. SAP SUCKERS STEM AND RHIZOME BORERS SEED AND FLOWER PREDATORS

INVASIVE SPECIES FREQUENTLY ESCAPE HERBIVORES 1. CANADIAN THISTLE 2. JAPANESE KNOTWEED 3. GOATWEED 4. WATER HYACINTH 5. JAPANESE HONEYSUCKLE 6. GARLIC MUSTARD 7. RAGWEED (INTRO. INTO RUSSIA)

FEEDING HABITS 1. CHEWING INSECTS 2. SUCKING INSECTS DEFOLIATORS LEAF TIERS AND ROLLERS BORERS 2. SUCKING INSECTS PHLOEM VS. XYLEM FEEDERS 3. GALL-MAKING INSECTS 800 SPECIES ON VARIOUS S[PECIES OF OAKS CANCER-LIKE GROWTH FEEDS AND PROTECTS GALL MAKER

NUTRIENT QUALTY OF PLANTS IS LOW 1. PLANT TISSUE COMPOSED LARGELY OF WATER AND POORLY DIGESTIBLE CELLULOSE 2. POOR NUTRIENT STATE COMPENSATED BY THE ABUNDANCE OF PLANTS 3. NITROGEN IS ESPECIALLY LOW

SOME NUTRIENT QUANTITIES 1. FRESH WEIGHT OF LEAVES IS 90% WATER, 1-3% PROTEINS, WITH THE REST BEING CARBOHYDRATES (MONO-, DI-, POLYSACCHARIDES) 2. SEEDS HAVE LESS WATER AND MORE PROTEIN (A VALUABLE RESOURCE) 3. ACTIVE MERISTEM RELATIVELY HIGH IN NUTRIENTS, BUT IS LITTLE USED

HYPOTHESES CONCERNING HOST SELECTION 1. THE NUTRIENT SCHOOL HYPOTHESIS 2. THE SECONDARY PLANT SUBSTANCE HYPOTHESIS

MANY SECONDARY PLANT CHEMICALS 1. GLUCOSIDES (E.G., MUSTARD OILS) 2. ALKALOIDS (E.G., NICOTINE) 3. PHENOLS 4. TERPENES (E.G., TURPENTINE) 5. TANNINS 6. SAPONINS 7. PYRETHRUMS 8. HORMONES (E.G., PHYTOECDYSONE)

PLANT DEFENSES 1. NON-CHEMICAL DEFENSES 2. CHEMICAL DEFENSES ESCAPE IN SPACE ESCAPE IN TIME USE SATIATION STRUCTURAL DEFENSES (COLOR SHIFTS, HARDEN TISSUES, ACQUIRE TRICHOMES, SPINES, BRISTLES OR SPURS, HAVE SILICA OR WAXES) 2. CHEMICAL DEFENSES USE A VARIETY OF SECONDARY PLANT SUBSTANCES