OCEAN SCIENCES HISTORY OF

“Just the Facts…” Over 97% of the water on the Earth is in the ocean. The average depth of the ocean is about 4000 meters. The Marianas Trench is 11,022 m deep, the deepest spot on the planet. Average pressure =8 tons per sq. in. Mt. Everest is “only” ~8667 m above sea level

“Just the Facts…” Mauna Kea on the Big Island of Hawaii, measures ~10,600 m from the ocean floor, making it the tallest mountain on the planet (surpassing even Mt. Everest). The ocean contains some 5 trillion tons of salts If dried and spread evenly, that mass would cover the entire planet to a depth of 45 m.

The Science or Study of the Oceans in 4 main areas: Oceanography The Science or Study of the Oceans in 4 main areas: Geological Oceanography Physical Oceanography Chemical Oceanography Biological Oceanography

Geological Oceanography Study of earth at edge of ocean Formation processes (seafloor) Sediments Rocks & minerals Geothermal vents

Physical Oceanography How & why oceans move Weather Heat transfer Water cycles Waves, tides, currents Temperature

Chemical Oceanography Composition & history of seawater Seawater processes & interactions Salinity Dissolved gases Nutrients

Biological Oceanography Living organisms Organisms relationships with each other and their environment

History of Oceanography

Why study historic oceanography? Connected to the world’s overall history Commerce, warfare, resources, weather The oceans have shaped humanity’s past

Why study Oceanographic History? Understand how and why people apply marine sciences today Oceanography’s history is about people, not just oceans and test tubes.

Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. to 800 A.D.) Not sure when ocean voyages actually began Fish hooks and spears dated approximately 5000 B.C. Earliest recorded sea voyage – Egyptians about 3200 B.C.

Phoenician Explorations Most important early Western seafarers Motivated by trade, Phoenicians traveled incredible distances Established first trade routes throughout the Mediterranean and as far north as Great Britain

Phoenician Navigation Stayed within sight of land Traveled at night – steered by observing constellations and the North Star. In the ancient world, the North Star was called the Phoenician Star

The Polynesians: Explorers of the Pacific Ocean Polynesian Double-Hulled Canoe

Polynesian Exploration Between 2000 and 500 B.C. Often traveled thousands of kilometers across open ocean Open canoes cut from tree trunks Developed stick maps with ocean currents Settled most of the islands in the Pacific Ocean hundreds of years before Europeans reached Pacific Ocean

Polynesian Stick Map

Polynesian Significance Earliest known regular, long-distance, open-ocean seafaring beyond sight of land

Migration routes of the Polynesians

Greek Exploration First who used mathematical principles and developed sophisticated maps for seafaring Pytheas – Greek explorer, noted that he could predict tides in Atlantic based on phases of moon He also measured angle between horizon and the North Star to determine position – improved navigation

Eratosthenes (264-194 B.C) 2 major contributions that furthered Pytheas’ work Calculated Earth’s Circumference ~40,000 km Invented first latitude/longitude system

Every point on the Earth can be specified by use of two numbers – Latitude and Longitude. Latitude is the North-South range, with values from 90N to 90S of equator

Map of World – According to Eratosthenes

Ptolemy (100-168 A.D.) Created map of Earth that showed a portion of the Earth as a sphere on flat paper. Produced first world atlas Improved longitude / latitude system System still used today

Middle Ages (800 A.D.-1400)

700-1000AD- Vikings

Vikings Age of Exploration 800-1066 AD Leif Erickson Discovered North America 500 years before Columbus

Viking Long Boat

Fig. 1.5

Age of Exploration 1480-1610

Chinese Exploration The Chinese Ming Dynasty sent large convoys of ships out on missions in which seven voyages were made There ships were more technologically advanced than anything in Europe, consisting of five masts and magnetic compasses and navigational charts The Ming Dynasty reached as far as Africa

Chinese Exploration of the Ming Dynasty In 1405, Chinese sent 62 ships to explore the Indian and Pacific Oceans

European Exploration and the Renaissance Prince Henry the navigator, (1420’s) founded first school of navigation Christopher Columbus (1490’s) was attempting to find a west-ward route to India when he reached the Bahamas Ferdinand Magellan (1519) led the expedition that first circumnavigated the word; he was killed in the Philippines. His servent, Sebastian Del Cano, brought the last ship, Victoria, into port in 1522.

Magellan’s Circumnavigation of World

The Beginning of Ocean Science

18th Century Previous exploration driven by military, trade, or conquest objectives Royal Navy of Britain launched voyages with objectives of exploration, mapping and projecting British presence around the world

Cook’s Expedition (1768 – 1779) Made 1st accurate maps of many regions in the ocean w/ new invention Chronometer invented by John Harrison Chronometer is a clock capable of keeping accurate time aboard ship at sea

Ben Franklin and the Gulf Stream – 1st postmaster General of U.S. Noted northerly routed ship from Europe took longer than ships that came by a longer more southerly route Learned about gulf stream from nephew, Timothy Folger, who gave his uncle a chart Franklin had the chart printed and distributed to the captains of mail ships. They shortened their inbound voyages by avoiding the current and they shortened their outbound voyages by using the current.

Ben Franklin’s Gulf Stream Map 1513

Franklin’s map and satellite photo of Gulf Stream “You may delay but time will not.” Benjamin Franklin

1860 Gulf Stream Map 1860 gulf stream map

What’s at the bottom of the Sea?

Ocean Science Begins Botanists and naturalists Collect, describe, and classify organisms Theory of atoll formation (Charles Darwin) Investigations of microscopic drifting plants and animals (plankton) Scientific interest based on practical reasons Navigation, tide prediction, and safety Importance of government support Laying of transatlantic telegraph cables

H.M.S. Beagle 1831-1836

Voyage of the Beagle, 1831-1836

Darwin, Coral Reefs and Biological Evolution From 1831 to 1836 a naturalist for the HMS Beagle circumnavigated the southern oceans and oceanic islands. Darwin observed birds and other organisms on isolated islands, most of his research took place in the Galapagos Islands. In 1859, his observations were published in the book “On the origin of Species”.

1847 Maury First “true” oceanographer 1847: U.S. Navy Lieutenant Matthew F. Maury produced first bathymetric, wind and current chart of the North Atlantic.

Father of Oceanography… Matthew Maury Matthew Maury, in charge of the Depot of Naval charts and instruments. Organized first international meteorological conference to establish uniform methods Published a summarized version of data in first Oceanographic textbook in 1855

The Rosses, Edward Forbes, and life in the deep sea John Ross took samples and animals in Baffin bay (Canada) Later James Ross took samples from Antarctic ocean bottom at 4.3 Miles John Ross and James Ross found that there are some bottom dwelling creatures in Baffin Bay and Antarctic Ocean. They discovered that deep Atlantic is uniformly cold. Forbes – Oceans divided into life-depth zones; concluded that ocean life decrease as depth increases. This contrasted with Rosses finings and created dispute for decades in Britain.

The Ocean as Laboratory : The Challenger Expedition (1872-1876) The expedition covered 79,178 miles. Directed by C. Wyville Thompson 2 contributions: Discovery and classification of 4,717 new marine species Measurement of record water depth at the Mariana Trench of 26,847 feet.

The Challenger Expedition Comprehensive scientific expedition Naval corvette refitted with laboratories, winches, and sounding scope Circumnavigation 361 sounding stations Collected deep-sea water samples Investigated deep-water motion Temperature measurements at all depths Thousands of biological and sea-bottom samples

Fig. 1.15 Analysis and compilation of data continued for 20 years Challenger Expedition Analysis and compilation of data continued for 20 years Began oceanography as a modern science Prestige stimulated expeditions by other nations

Polar oceanography begins with the voyage of the Fram Fridtjof Nansen set out with a crew of 13 on a boat called Fram to explore the Artic sea. His boat became frozen in ice and drifted for 3 years His drift proved that there was no continent in the Arctic sea.

Early Oceanographers Harsh conditions and slow work compared to today

Twentieth century oceanography

Oceanography in the Twentieth Century Support by wealthy individuals Scripps Institution of Oceanography Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Rapid advances during World War II Office of Naval Research (ONR) and National Science Foundation (NSF) funding International Geophysical Year (IGY) cooperation Satellites Deep Sea Drilling Program National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)

Bathyscaphe Trieste

http://www.pbs.org/wnet/savageseas/multimedia/trieste.html

Trieste (1960) The bathyscaphe, Trieste, descends to 10,915 meters Into Marianas Trench Deepest depth in the ocean

Marianas Trench Near Guam, lies the deepest known point on earth’s floor—the Challenger Deep inside the Mariana Trench. The Mariana Trench is located in the Pacific Ocean; it is the result of the convergence of the large Pacific Tectonic Plate and the smaller Mariana Tectonic Plate. This trench is 1,554 miles long and 44 miles wide. The deepest point, Challenger Deep, is measured at depths of nearly 7 miles, 38, 518 feet deep. Because of the extreme profundity and darkness of the trench, the measured depth is still only an estimate measured from mathematical conversion from the waters’ pressure.

Marianas Trench… To date, only 3 people in existence have reached the bottom of the Mariana Trench. The first two humans to achieve decent were Jacques Piccard (7/28/1922 – 11/1/2008) and Captain Don Walsh (11/7/1931 – present) aboard the US Navy owned bathyscaphe Trieste. The expedition was completed on January 23rd, 1960. The vessel carrying Walsh and Piccard remained on the deepest known point on earth for 20 minutes. Recently, in 2012, James Cameron was the third to reach the bottom, under the supervision of Captain Don Walsh himself.

Voyage of the Meteor First drilling ship Ship came from Germany Set the standard for multidisciplinary studies of the Ocean Mapped the ocean bottom by echo sounding Meteor sailed for 25 months

Glomar Challenger Deep Sea Drilling Project Ship (1968 to 1983) Howard Hughes’ ship

Large-scale and international oceanographic research The Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP) was the 1st large-scale cooperative effort in academic ocean research The Glomar Challenger began 1st leg of deep sea drilling The deep sea drilling project became the ocean drilling program (ODP) The ODP drill ship JOIDES Resolution, which is a lot larger than the Glomar Challenger, conducted its first scientific cruise and the JOIDES program continues today.

JOIDES Resolution (1985 to present) Ocean Drilling Program drill ship

The history behind plate tectonic theory In 1915, Alfred Wegener developed the theory of continental drift. He conceived of a single ancient landmass called Pangaea that began to break 180 million years ago. Fredrick Vine and Drummond Matthews provided evidence for sea floor spreading in 1963 They mapped magnetic patterns of the ocean floor, which showed parallel bands of similarly magnetized reaches on either side of oceanic mountain ranges. Which were records of changes in Earth’s magnetic field over time

Humans invade the deep ocean Increased pressure on body cavities and gases dissolved in body tissues limits duration of dives. Decompressing is necessary at greater depths because rapid ascending turns dissolved gases in tissues into nitrogen. These nitrogen bubbles can stop blood flow. This is know as the bends and is extremely painful illness which can be fatal. To protect oneself, a strict decompression schedule which includes stopping at different depths Jim suit allows a person to repair machinery at the ocean floor at surface pressure

Submersibles William Beebe- descended to a depth of 923 meters off Bermuda in a tethered bathysphere to observe deep-sea life. Jacques Piccard- designed untethered vessel Trieste - 1960 Alvin, Sea Cliff- 2 most widely used submersibles Japan’s Shinkai- to study microbes in the deep sea

Submersibles Factors of manned sub: Risk to human life High cost of the systems required Relatively short time that can be spent making observations Advantages of ROVs (remotely operated vehicles) No risk to humans Can make computer-assisted maps (based on sonar) Stay down in water for a long time Autonomous Underwater Vehicles Programmed to carry out specific data gatherings missions of long durations without human life

A.U.V.s vs. R.O.V.s

REMUS AUV mapped Titanic on 2012 Expedition.

Living under the sea Jacques Cousteau- began designing and testing the underwater living chamber in the 1950s In the 1970s teams lived undersea chambers for up to 60 days May be placed on ocean floor or suspended Can respond and equalize to any pressure

Jacques Cousteau (1910-1997) invented SCUBA during World War II

Jacques Cousteau (1910-1997) Most famous oceanographer of the 20th century The sea, once it casts its spell, it holds one in its nets of wonder forever. The sea, the great unifier, is man's only hope. Now, as never before, the old phrase has a literal meaning: we are all in the same boat ~ Jacques Cousteau

Oceanography gets institutionalized Scripps institution of Oceanography (1st institute in U.S.) – California Woods Hole Ocean. Inst. (Boston) Lamont Geological Observatory - New York Texas A&M University administered The Ocean Drilling Program NOAA – National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association

Universities for Ocean Science Massachusetts Institute of Technology Rutgers University University of Washington, Seattle Princeton University University of Southern California University of California, Santa Barbara University of Miami University of Hawaii

SCRIPPS

SCRIPPS Founded in 1903 in San Diego, CA Became part of the University of California in 1912 Scripps scientists were the first to discover rising levels of carbon dioxide

Home to FLIP – Floating Instrument Platform

355 ft long floating platform Owned by the Navy Built from the idea of a Louisville slugger Design makes it stable in water 10 meter waves = less than 1m vertical movement Began operations in Sept. 1962

Woods Hole

WHOI – Home To ALVIN http://www.whoi.edu/home/interactive/alvin/ ALVIN – Brought back first pictures from Titanic Argo – towed Camera – 1985 helped to find Titanic wreckage Alvin’s New Upgrade – 6500 M http://www.whoi.edu/oceanus/viewArticle.do?id=79106

NEW ALVIN After $41Million Re-design

Lamont – Doherty Earth Observatory

Current Research Mapping the rift valley off the coast of Spain What lies under the Arctic Ice?

The expansion of oceanography German U-boat led to the invention of the echo sounder to detect submarines WW2_military performed and supported many studies on transmission of sound in the ocean waves, currents, and ocean- floor topography. After WW2 U.S. government established a Sea Grant program to fund ocean research

Aquarius

AQUARIUS http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CZIMIUuzsBc&feature=related Jonathan’s Blue World http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o9RCj7ojjcQ&feature=related

Remote sensing Sometimes ocean is observed from space; they can measure temp., ice cover, color, etc. Seasat A - 1st dedicated oceanographic satellite. Nimbus 7- mapped phyto-plankton populations TOPEX/ Poseidon- mapped global sea level and got data on ocean –atmosphere interaction. Global Positioning system- allows ship to determine positions with in a meter

SEASAT A

TOPEX / POSEIDON