Prologue: Psychology’s Roots Definition of Psychology The science of behavior (what we do) and mental processes (sensations, perceptions, dreams, thoughts, beliefs, and feelings)

Prescientific Psychology Psychology’s Roots Prescientific Psychology OBJECTIVE 2| Trace psychology’s prescientific roots from, from early understandings of mind and body to the beginnings of modern science. Through out human history thinkers have wondered: How do our minds work? How do our bodies relate to our minds? How much of what we know comes built in? How much is acquired through experience? In India, Buddha wondered how sensations and perceptions combined to form ideas.

Prescientific Psychology Confucius (551-479 B.C.) In China, Confucius stressed the power of ideas and the importance of an educated mind.

Prescientific Psychology Hebrew Scriptures Hebrew scriptures linked mind and emotion to the body.

Prescientific Psychology Socrates (469-399 B.C.) and Plato (428-348 B.C.) Socrates Plato Socrates and his student Plato believed the mind was separate from the body, the mind continued to exist after death, and ideas were innate.

Prescientific Psychology Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) “The soul is not separable from the body, and the same holds good of particular parts of the soul.” Aristotle, De Anima, 350 B.C. Aristotle suggested that the soul is not separable from the body and that knowledge (ideas) grow from experience.

Prescientific Psychology Rene Descartes (1596-1650) Descartes like Plato believed the immaterial mind and physical body were separate but communicated in the brain at pineal gland. Animal spirits moved from the brain to act on the muscles and experiences lead the nerves to open up “pores” in the brain to form memories. Descartes was right about the nerves connecting the inside and the outside worlds but had no notion of how these nerves functioned. Descartes, like Plato, believed in soul (mind)-body separation, but wondered how the immaterial mind and physical body communicated.

Prescientific Psychology Francis Bacon (1561-1626) Bacon is one of the founders of modern science, particularly the experimental method.

Prescientific Psychology John Locke (1632-1704) Locke held that the mind was a tabula rasa, or blank sheet, at birth, and experiences wrote on it.

Prescientific Psychology What is the relation of mind to the body? Mind and body are connected Mind and body are distinct The Hebrews Socrates Aristotle Plato Augustine Descartes

Prescientific Psychology How are ideas formed? Some ideas are inborn The mind is a blank slate Socrates Aristotle Plato Locke

Prologue: Psychology’s Roots Psychological Science Is Born Empiricism Knowledge comes from experience via the senses Science flourishes through observation and experiment

Wilhelm Wundt Wundt is referred to as the “father of psychology” and was the first to declare himself a psychologist: “I am a psychologist” - Wilhelm Wundt In 1879 he started the first laboratory in psychology for studying humans. Using a procedure called “introspection” he introduced scientific procedure to study feelings. He broke the elements of feelings and thought into parts.

Psychological Science is Born Structuralism Wundt (1832-1920) Titchener (1867-1927) OBJECTIVE 3| Explain how early psychologists sought to understand the mind’s structure and functions, and identify some of the leading psychologists who worked in these areas. Structuralism: Wundt and his student Titchner focused on the elements of mind, and studied it by using introspection (self-reflection). Wundt established the first laboratory of psychology in 1879 at Leipzig, Germany, and wrote the first textbook of psychology. Wundt and Titchener studied the elements of the mind by conducting experiments at his lab in Leipzig, Germany, in 1879.

Psychological Science is Born Functionalism James (1842-1910) Mary Calkins Functionalism: James suggested that it would be more fruitful to consider the evolved functions of our thoughts and feelings than simply studying the elements of mind. Based on the theory of evolution, he suggested that the function of these thoughts and feelings was adaptive. James admitted the first woman student Mary Calkins to Harvard and tutored her. Despite his efforts she was not able to attain her PhD from Harvard. Influenced by Darwin, William James established the school of functionalism, which opposed structuralism.

Prologue: Psychology’s Roots Functionalism focused on how behavioral processes function- how they enable an organism to adapt, survive, and flourish

William James James is considered to be one of the founders of American psychology. In 1890, he published Principles of Psychology. The book was 1400 pages long, two volumes in length and it took him 12 years to write. Unlike Wundt, he did not want to break behavior into parts; instead, he never wanted to lose sight of the individual as a whole.

Psychological Science is Born The Unconscious Mind Freud (1856-1939) Sigmund Freud and his followers emphasized the importance of the unconscious mind and its effects on human behavior.

Psychological Science Develops Behaviorism Skinner (1904-1990) Watson (1878-1958) OBJECTIVE 4| Describe the evolution of psychology as defined from 1920s to through today. Ivan Pavlov a Russian Physiologist, James Watson and Skinner were all instrumental in developing the science of psychology and emphasized behavior instead of mind or mental thoughts. From 1920 to 1960, psychology in the US was heavily oriented towards behaviorism. Watson (1913) and Skinner emphasized the study of overt behavior as the subject matter of scientific psychology.

Other Pioneers John B. Watson (1878–1958) B. F. Skinner (1904–1990) psychologists should study overt behavior “Father of Behaviorism” B. F. Skinner (1904–1990) American psychologist at Harvard studied learning and effect of reinforcement “Father of Operant Conditioning”

p. 8 Discovering psy John B. Watson (1878–1958)

p. 8 Discovering psy B. F. Skinner (1904–1990)

Psychological Science Develops Humanistic Psychology Maslow (1908-1970) Rogers (1902-1987) Maslow and Rogers emphasized current environmental influences on our growth potential and our need for love and acceptance.

Psychological Associations & Societies The American Psychological Association is the largest organization of psychology with 160,000 members world-wide, followed by the British Psychological Society with 34,000 members.

Psychology’s Three Main Levels of Analysis OBJECTIVE 6| Identify the three main levels of analysis in the biopsychosocial approach, and explain why psychology’s varied perspectives are complementary. Biopsychosocial approach considers the influence of biological, psychological, and socio-cultural factors on behavior. Each approach provides an incomplete explanation of behaviors.

Prologue: Contemporary Psychology Psychology’s Big Issues Stability vs. Change Do our individual traits persist as we age? Do we become older versions of ourselves?

Prologue: Contemporary Psychology Rationality vs. Irrationality Rationality– reasonableness, good sense of equity and proportion Irrationality– not reasonable in thinking or behaving, distorted perception of reality

Philosophical Developments BIG Another Question: Nature vs. Nurture the relative contribution that genes and experience make to development of psychological traits and behaviors Are abilities determined by our genes or our experiences? What are the interactions between genetics and environment? What effect does it have on behavior? Keywords: materialism, empiricism, nativism

Charles Darwin On the Origin of Species was published in 1859. His theory was that humans and animals had evolved and changed. His theory inspired scientists to study animals in order to understand human behavior.

Prologue: Contemporary Psychology Charles Darwin Natural selection principle that those inherited trait variations contributing to survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

Psychology’s Current Perspectives Focus Sample Questions Neuroscience How the body and brain enables emotions How are messages transmitted in the body? How is blood chemistry linked with moods and motives? Evolutionary How the natural selection of traits promotes the perpetuation of one’s genes How does evolution influence behavior tendencies? Behavior genetics How much our genes and our environments influence our individual differences To what extent are psychological traits such as intelligence, personality, sexual orientation, and vulnerability to depression attributable to our genes? To our environment? Although debates arise among the psychologists working from differing perspectives, each point of view addresses important questions.

Psychology’s Current Perspectives Focus Sample Questions Psychodynamic How behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts How can someone’s personality traits and disorders be explained in terms of sexual and aggressive drives or as disguised effects of unfulfilled wishes and childhood traumas? Behavioral How we learn observable responses How do we learn to fear particular objects or situations? What is the most effective way to alter our behavior, say to lose weight or quit smoking?

Psychology’s Current Perspectives Focus Sample Questions Cognitive How we encode, process, store and retrieve information How do we use information in remembering? Reasoning? Problem solving? Social-cultural How behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures How are we — as Africans, Asians, Australians or North Americans – alike as members of human family? As products of different environmental contexts, how do we differ?

Psychology’s Subfields: Research Psychologist What she does Biological Explore the links between brain and mind. Developmental Study changing abilities from womb to tomb. Cognitive Study how we perceive, think, and solve problems. Personality Investigate our persistent traits. Social Explore how we view and affect one another. OBJECTIVE 7| Identify some of the psychology’s subfields, and explain the difference between clinical psychology and psychiatry.

Approaches to Psychology Biological Behavioral Psychoanalytic Humanistic Cognitive Sociocultural

Biological Perspective Study the physiological mechanisms in the brain and nervous system that organize and control behavior Focus may be at various levels individual neurons areas of the brain specific functions like eating, emotion, or learning Interest in behavior distinguishes biological psychology from many other biological sciences Keywords: physiological psychology

Evolutionary Perspective Influenced by Darwin and the emphasis on innate, adaptive behavior patterns Application of principles of evolution to explain behavior and psychological processes Keywords: ethology, Konrad Lorenz, Nikolass Tinbergen Graphic: picture of Lorenz pg. 16 Gray

John B. Watson Watson studied the impact of learning on people. This led to the school of behaviorism. He believed that careful and structured parenting could eliminate psychological problems. Watson later wrote a book applying scientific methods to raising children.

The Behavioral Approach People such as B. F. Skinner (pictured to the left) and John B. Watson are called behaviorists. This approach emphasizes that behavior is primarily the result of learning and not due to a person’s thoughts and unconscious processes.

Behavioral Perspective View of behavior based on experience or learning Classical conditioning-- Pavlov Operant conditioning-- Skinner

Sigmund Freud Freud developed the first comprehensive theory of human development and behavior, especially how the personality develops. He believed that childhood memories and thoughts influenced the behavior of people when they became adults.

Psychodynamic Perspective View of behavior based on experience treating patients Psychoanalytic approach (Sigmund Freud) both a method of treatment and a theory of the mind behavior reflects combinations of conscious and unconscious influences drives and urges within the unconscious component of mind influence thought and behavior early childhood experiences shape unconscious motivations Keywords: psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud

Cognitive Perspective How is knowledge acquired, organized, remembered, and used to guide behavior? Influences include Piaget – studied intellectual development Chomsky – studied language Cybernetics – science of information processing Keywords: cognitive psychology

Humanistic Perspective Developed by Abraham Maslow & Carl Rogers behavior reflects innate ‘actualization’ focus on conscious forces and self perception more positive view of basic forces than Freud’s

Carl Rogers (1902–1987) Abraham Maslow (1908–1970) p. 9 Discovering psychology Carl Rogers (1902–1987) Abraham Maslow (1908–1970)

The Sociocultural Approach This approach looks at the impact that society, culture, ethnicity, race, and religion have on personality. Psychoanalytic Cognitive

Cross-Cultural Perspective The study of psychological differences among people living in different cultural groups How are people’s thoughts, feelings and behavior influenced by their culture? What are the common elements across culture? Are these innate? Keywords: cultural psychology

Psychology’s Subfields: Research Data: APA 1997

Psychology’s Subfields: Applied Psychologist What she does Clinical Studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders Counseling Helps people cope with academic, vocational, and marital challenges. Educational Studies and helps individuals in school and educational settings Industrial/ Organizational Studies and advises on behavior in the workplace.

Psychology’s Subfields: Applied Data: APA 1997

Clinical Psychology vs. Psychiatry A clinical psychologist (Ph.D.) studies, assesses, and treats troubled people with psychotherapy. Psychiatrists on the other hand are medical professionals (M.D.) who use treatments like drugs and psychotherapy to treat psychologically diseased patients.

Prologue: Contemporary Psychology Psychology’s Subfields Basic Research-- laboratory Biological psychologists explore the links between brain and mind Developmental psychologists study changing abilities from womb to tomb Cognitive psychologists study how we perceive, think, and solve problems

Prologue: Contemporary Psychology Psychology’s Subfields Basic Research Personality psychologists investigate our persistent traits Social psychologists explore how we view and affect one another

Prologue: Contemporary Psychology Psychology’s Subfields Applied Research—face to face Industrial/organizational psychologists study and advise on behavior in the workplace Clinical psychologists study, assess, and treat people with psychological disorders

Prologue: Contemporary Psychology Psychiatry A branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders Practiced by physicians who sometimes use medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychotherapy

Close-up Your Study of Psychology Survey, Question, Read, Review and Reflect (SQ3R) Survey: What you are about to read, including chapter outlines and section heads. Question: Ask questions. Make notes. Read: Make sure you read outlines, sections and chapters in entirety. Review: Margin definitions. Study learning outcomes. Reflect: On what you learn. Test yourself with quizzes.

Additional Study Hints Close-up Additional Study Hints Distribute your time. Listen actively in class. Overlearn. Be a smart test-taker.