Lexical Functional Grammar 11-721: Grammars and Lexicons Fall Term 2004

Lions seem to live in the forest SUBJ PRED ‘lion’ NUM pl PERS 3 PRED ‘seem < theme > SUBJ’ XCOMP TENSE pres VFORM fin XCOMP SUBJ [ ] VFORM INF PRED ‘live< theme loc >’ SUBJ OBL-loc OBJ OBL-loc CASE OBL-loc PRED ‘in<OBJ>’ OBJ PRED ‘forest’ NUM sg PERS 3 DEF + S NP VP N V VP-bar COMP VP V PP P NP DET N Lions seem to live in the forest

Lions seem to live in the forest SUBJ PRED ‘lion’ NUM pl PERS 3 PRED ‘seem < theme > SUBJ’ XCOMP TENSE pres VFORM fin XCOMP SUBJ [ ] VFORM INF PRED ‘live< theme loc >’ SUBJ OBL-loc OBJ OBL-loc CASE OBL-loc PRED ‘in<OBJ>’ OBJ PRED ‘forest’ NUM sg PERS 3 DEF + f1 f2 S n1 f3 n2 NP VP n4 n3 N V VP-bar n5 n6 f4 n7 COMP VP n8 f5 f6 V PP n10 n9 P NP n12 n11 DET N n13 n14 Lions seem to live in the forest

Lions seem to live in the forest SUBJ PRED ‘lion’ NUM pl PERS 3 PRED ‘seem < theme > SUBJ’ XCOMP TENSE pres VFORM fin XCOMP SUBJ [ ] VFORM INF PRED ‘live< theme loc >’ SUBJ OBL-loc OBJ OBL-loc CASE OBL-loc PRED ‘in<OBJ>’ OBJ PRED ‘forest’ NUM sg PERS 3 DEF + f1 f2 S n1 f3 n2 NP VP n4 n3 N V VP-bar n5 n6 f4 n7 COMP VP n8 f5 f6 V PP n10 n9 P NP n12 n11 DET N n13 n14 Lions seem to live in the forest

Properties of the mapping from c-structure to f-structure Each c-structure node maps onto at most one f-structure node. More than one c-structure node can map onto the same f-structure node. An f-structure node does not have to correspond to any c-structure node. (But the information it contains does come from somewhere – either a grammar rule or lexical entry.)

The formalism for grammatical encoding : Local co-description of partial structures Φ is a mapping from c-structure nodes to f-structure nodes. There are other mappings to semantic structures, argument structures, discourse structures,etc. * is the “current” c-structure node (me). Φ(*) is “my f-structure” () m(*) is “my c-structure mother” Φ(m(*)) is “my c-structure mother’s f-structure” ()

Local co-description of partial structures S  NP VP ( SUBJ) =  =  NP says: My mother’s f-structure has a SUBJ feature whose value is my f-structure. VP says: My mother’s f-structure is my f-structure. This rule simultaneously describes a piece of c-structure and a piece of f-structure. It is local because each equation refers only to the current node and its mother. (page 119-120)

Other types of equations F-structure composition ( SUBJ NUM) = sg My f-structure has a subj feature, whose value is another f-structure, which has a num feature, whose value is sg. Usually, path names are not longer than two. Two features pointing to the same value: ( SUBJ) = ( XCOMP SUBJ) ( SUBJ) = ( TOPIC) ( ( CASE)) =  (Dalrymple pages 152-153) Sam walked in the park. ( CASE) = OBL-loc ( OBL-loc) = 

The minimal solution The f-structure for a sentence is the minimal f-structure that satisfies all of the equations. (page 101).

Building an F-structure: informal, for linguists Annotate Assign a variable name to the f-structure corresponding to each c-structure node. May find out later that some of them are the same. Instantiate Replace the arrows with the variable names. Solve Locate the f-structure named on the left side of the equation. Locate the f-structure named on the right side of the equation Unify them. Replace both of them with the result of unification.

Lions seem to live in the forest Rule: S → NP VP (↑ SUBJ) = ↓ ↑=↓ (↑VFORM) = fin Instantiated equations: (f1 SUBJ) = f2 f1 = f3 SUBJ PRED ‘lion’ NUM pl PERS 3 PRED ‘seem < theme > SUBJ’ XCOMP TENSE pres VFORM fin XCOMP SUBJ [ ] VFORM INF PRED ‘live< theme loc >’ SUBJ OBL-loc OBJ OBL-loc CASE OBL-loc PRED ‘in<OBJ>’ OBJ PRED ‘forest’ NUM sg PERS 3 DEF + f2 f1 f3 S f1 NP f2 VP f3 N V VP-bar COMP VP V PP P NP DET N Lions seem to live in the forest

Lions seem to live in the forest lion: N seem: V (↑ PRED) = `lion’ (↑ PRED) = ‘seem < theme > SUBJ’ XCOMP (↑ SUBJ) = (↑ XCOMP SUBJ) -s (suffix for nouns) (↑ NUM) = pl - Ø (suffix for verbs) (↑ PERS) = 3 (↑ VFORM) = fin (↑ SUBJ NUM) = pl SUBJ PRED ‘lion’ NUM pl PERS 3 PRED ‘seem < theme > SUBJ’ XCOMP TENSE pres VFORM fin XCOMP SUBJ [ ] VFORM INF PRED ‘live< theme loc >’ SUBJ OBL-loc OBJ OBL-loc CASE OBL-loc PRED ‘in<OBJ>’ OBJ PRED ‘forest’ NUM sg PERS 3 DEF + f4 S NP VP f5 f4 N f5 V VP-bar COMP VP V PP P NP DET N Lions seem to live in the forest

Lions seem to live in the forest lion: N seem: V (f4 PRED) = `lion’ (f5 PRED) = ‘seem < theme > SUBJ’ XCOMP (f5 SUBJ) = (f5 XCOMP SUBJ) -s (suffix for nouns) (f4 NUM) = pl - Ø (suffix for verbs) (f4 PERS) = 3 (f5 VFORM) = fin (f5 SUBJ NUM) = pl SUBJ PRED ‘lion’ NUM pl PERS 3 PRED ‘seem < theme > SUBJ’ XCOMP TENSE pres VFORM fin XCOMP SUBJ [ ] VFORM INF PRED ‘live< theme loc >’ SUBJ OBL-loc OBJ OBL-loc CASE OBL-loc PRED ‘in<OBJ>’ OBJ PRED ‘forest’ NUM sg PERS 3 DEF + f4 S NP VP f5 f4 N f5 V VP-bar COMP VP V PP P NP DET N Lions seem to live in the forest

What is an XCOMP A non-finite clause, predicate nominal, predicate adjective, or predicate PP Sam seemed to be happy (VP) Sam seemed happy (AP) Sam became a teacher (NP) We had them arrested (VP) We kept them in the drawer (PP) Has to be an argument of a verb: Arrested by the police, Sam had no alternative but to give up his life of crime. This is an adjunct, not an XCOMP Gets its subject by sharing with another verb: I think that Sam is happy. This is a COMP, not an XCOMP

Lions seem to live in the forest seem: V (↑ PRED) = ‘seem < theme > SUBJ’ XCOMP (↑ SUBJ) = (↑ XCOMP SUBJ) (↑ XCOMP VFORM) = INF - Ø (suffix for verbs) (↑ VFORM) = fin (↑ SUBJ NUM) = pl VP → V VP ↑=↓ (↑ XCOMP) = ↓ SUBJ PRED ‘lion’ NUM pl PERS 3 PRED ‘seem < theme > SUBJ’ XCOMP TENSE pres VFORM fin XCOMP SUBJ [ ] VFORM INF PRED ‘live< theme loc >’ SUBJ OBL-loc OBJ OBL-loc CASE OBL-loc PRED ‘in<OBJ>’ OBJ PRED ‘forest’ NUM sg PERS 3 DEF + f3 S f5 NP VP f3 f6 f7 N f5 V f8 VP-bar f8 f6COMP VP f9 f9 f7V PP P NP to: COMP - Ø (suffix for verbs) (↑ VFORM) = INF (↑ VFORM) = INF live: V (↑ PRED) = `live<theme loc>’ SUBJ OBL DET N Lions seem to live in the forest

Lions seem to live in the forest seem: V (f5 PRED) = ‘seem < theme > SUBJ’ XCOMP (f5 SUBJ) = (f5 XCOMP SUBJ) (f5 XCOMP VFORM) = INF - Ø (suffix for verbs) (f5 VFORM) = fin (f5 SUBJ NUM) = pl VP → V VP f3=f5 (f3 XCOMP) = f8 SUBJ PRED ‘lion’ NUM pl PERS 3 PRED ‘seem < theme > SUBJ’ XCOMP TENSE pres VFORM fin XCOMP SUBJ [ ] VFORM INF PRED ‘live< theme loc >’ SUBJ OBL-loc OBJ OBL-loc CASE OBL-loc PRED ‘in<OBJ>’ OBJ PRED ‘forest’ NUM sg PERS 3 DEF + f3 S f5 NP VP f3 f6 f7 N f5 V f8 VP-bar f8 f6COMP VP f9 f9 f7V PP P NP to: COMP - Ø (suffix for verbs) (f6 VFORM) = INF (f7 VFORM) = INF live: V (f7 PRED) = `live<theme loc>’ SUBJ OBL DET N Lions seem to live in the forest

Lions try to live in the forest SUBJ PRED ‘lion’ NUM pl PERS 3 PRED ‘try < agent theme >’ SUBJ XCOMP TENSE pres VFORM fin XCOMP SUBJ [ ] VFORM INF PRED ‘live< theme loc >’ SUBJ OBL-loc OBJ OBL-loc CASE OBL-loc PRED ‘in<OBJ>’ OBJ PRED ‘forest’ NUM sg PERS 3 DEF + S NP VP N V VP-bar COMP VP V PP P NP DET N Lions try to live in the forest

Lions have lived in the forest have: V (↑ PRED) = ‘have < theme > SUBJ’ XCOMP (↑ SUBJ) = (↑ XCOMP SUBJ) (↑ XCOMP VFORM) = PASTPART - Ø (suffix for verbs) (↑ VFORM) = fin (↑ SUBJ NUM) = pl SUBJ PRED ‘lion’ NUM pl PERS 3 PRED ‘have < theme > SUBJ’ XCOMP TENSE pres VFORM fin XCOMP SUBJ [ ] VFORM PASTPART PRED ‘live< theme loc >’ SUBJ OBL-loc OBJ OBL-loc CASE OBL-loc PRED ‘in<OBJ>’ OBJ PRED ‘forest’ NUM sg PERS 3 DEF + S NP VP N V VP V PP P NP DET N Lions have lived in the forest

Lions were hunted in the forest were : V (↑ PRED) = ‘be < theme > SUBJ’ XCOMP (↑ SUBJ) = (↑ XCOMP SUBJ) (↑ XCOMP VFORM) = PASSIVE (↑ VFORM) = fin (↑ SUBJ NUM) = pl SUBJ PRED ‘lion’ NUM pl PERS 3 PRED ‘be < theme > SUBJ’ XCOMP TENSE pres VFORM fin XCOMP SUBJ [ ] VFORM PASSIVE PRED ‘hunt<agent theme loc >’ Ø SUBJ OBL-loc OBJ OBL-loc CASE OBL-loc PRED ‘in<OBJ>’ OBJ PRED ‘forest’ NUM sg PERS 3 DEF + S NP VP N V VP V PP P NP DET N Lions were hunted in the forest