Socioemotional Development in Infancy Children 8 Socioemotional Development in Infancy John W. Santrock

Socioemotional Development in Infancy How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy? How Does Attachment Develop in Infancy? How Do Social Contexts Influence Socioemotional Development in Infancy?

Images of Children The story of Tom’s fathering Work-at-home father How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy? Images of Children The story of Tom’s fathering Work-at-home father Extensive father-child interactions Mother spends extensive time with Tom in evening after work Both balance careers and child care

Emotional Development How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy? Emotional Development Emotion: feeling or affect Physiological arousal Conscious experience Behavioral expression Positive or negative Varies in intensity Influenced by one’s perceptions

Biological Foundations and Experience How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy? Biological Foundations and Experience Emotions involve early-developing regions of human nervous system, limbic system, brain stem Emotional responses in infancy result from developmental changes Role of relationships

A Functionalist View of Emotion How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy? A Functionalist View of Emotion Cannot separate emotional responses from evoking situation or context Signals attempts to adapt to specific roles Emotions are relational linked with an individual’s goals

Early Developmental Changes in Emotion How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy? Early Developmental Changes in Emotion Two broad types of emotions Primary: present in humans, animals Appear within first 6 months of life Include surprise, anger, joy, sadness, fear Promote caregiver-infant interactions

Early Developmental Changes in Emotion How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy? Early Developmental Changes in Emotion Two broad types of emotions Self-conscious: requires cognition Empathy, jealousy, embarrassment first appear about 1½ years Pride, shame, guilt first appear about 2½ years Enables child to use social standards and evaluate own behavior

Crying Basic Cry Anger Cry Pain Cry How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy? Crying Pain Cry Anger Cry Basic Cry Sudden loud, long initial cry followed by extended period of breath holding; without preliminary moaning Similar to basic cry, with more excess air forced through vocal chords Rhythmic pattern usually consisting of cry, briefer silence, shorter inspiratory whistle, and brief rest

Crying Controversy among experts How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy? Crying Controversy among experts Quick response is important ingredient in strong caregiver-infant bond; develops trust and security Quick response increases crying and incidence, reinforces and spoils child Effects of swaddling versus massaging

Smiling Reflexive smile Social smile How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy? Smiling Reflexive smile Not a response to external stimuli Happens during first month after birth, usually during sleep Social smile Appears about 2 to 3 months of age Response to external stimulus, faces

Fear First appears about 6 months of age How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy? Fear First appears about 6 months of age Stranger anxiety: fear and wariness of strangers Intense from 9 to 12 months Less intense reaction to children, smiling strangers Separation protest: distress at being separated from caregiver peaks at about 15 months in U.S. infants

Separation Anxiety in Four Cultures Antiguan Guatemala GuatemalanIndian Israeli Kibbutzim African Bushman Percent of children who cried when mothers left 20 Age (in months) 15 5 25 30 35 10 100 80 60 40 Fig. 8.3

How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy? Social Referencing “Reading” emotional cues in others to help determine how to act in a particular situation Infants “check” with mother before acting in second year

Emotional Regulation and Coping How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy? Emotional Regulation and Coping Emotional regulation: effectively managing arousal to adapt, reach goal Infants move from relying on caregiver soothing to self-soothing strategies, redirected attention, self-distraction Context can affect regulation

Describing and Classifying Temperament How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy? Describing and Classifying Temperament Temperament: one’s behavioral style and characteristic emotional response Chess and Thomas: three basic types Easy: positive mood, adapts easily Difficult: negative, cries, adapts slowly Slow-to-warm-up: low activity level, low adaptability and intensity of mood

Kagan’s Behavioral Inhibition How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy? Kagan’s Behavioral Inhibition Focus on shy, subdued, timid child Inhibition to the unfamiliar Inhibition shows considerable stability from infancy through early childhood Continuity shown for both inhibition and lack of inhibition

Rothbart and Bates’ Classification How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy? Rothbart and Bates’ Classification Extraversion/surgency: positive affect, impulsivity, sensation seeking Negative affectivity: easily distressed Effortful control (self-regulation): high efforts to control affect

Biological Foundations and Experience How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy? Biological Foundations and Experience Physiological characteristics associated with different temperaments Genetic influences Influence of social contexts can vary Goodness of fit: match between child’s temperament and environmental demands

Parenting and the Child’s Temperament How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy? Parenting and the Child’s Temperament Attention to and respect for individuality Structuring the child’s environment The “difficult child” and packaged parenting programs Flexible caregiver responses Avoid “labeling” and self-fulfilling prophecy

Personality Development How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy? Personality Development Trust versus mistrust: Erikson’s first stage of development Infants experience world as either secure and comfortable or insecure and uncomfortable Continuity not guaranteed

Developing a Sense of Self and Independence How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy? Developing a Sense of Self and Independence The Self Separation and individualization process Visual self-recognition Independence Autonomy versus shame and doubt self-determination and pride or overcontrol creates shame and doubt

Development of Self-Recognition in Infancy Percent of infants who recognized themselves in a mirror Age (in months) 21-24 9-12 15-18 100 80 60 40 20 Amsterdam study Lewis and Brooks-Gunn study Development of Self-Recognition in Infancy Two studies on infants and children able to recognize themselves in mirror Fig. 8.4

Theories of Attachment How Does Attachment Develop in Infancy? Theories of Attachment Freud: Infants become attached to person or object giving oral satisfaction Disproved by Harlow’s research: regardless of which mother fed monkeys, both preferred cloth mother contact Erikson: First year is key for attachment

Harlow’s Results: Contact time with wire and cloth surrogate mothers 24 6 12 18 21-25 1-5 6-10 11-10 16-20 Age (days) . Fed by wire mother Fed by cloth mother Hours per day spent with wire mother Hours per day spent with cloth mother Mean hours per day Harlow’s Results: Contact time with wire and cloth surrogate mothers Fig. 8.5

Theories of Attachment How Does Attachment Develop in Infancy? Theories of Attachment Bowlby: instinct for attachment occurs in four phases, increases chances of survival Phase 1: birth to 2 mos. Phase 2: from 2 to 7 mos. Phase 3: from 7 to 24 mos. Phase 4: from 24 mos. on

How Does Attachment Develop in Infancy? Measuring Attachment Ainsworth’s strange situation: measures infant’s attachment to caregiver Requires infant to move through a series of introductions, separations, and reunions Securely attached Insecure avoidant Insecure resistant Insecure disorganized

Cross-Cultural Comparison of Attachment: 30 10 40 50 60 70 20 Japan U.S. Germany Percentage of infants Resistant Secure Avoidant Cross-Cultural Comparison of Attachment: Ainsworth’s strange situation applied to infants in three countries in 1988 Fig. 8.6

The Significance of Attachment How Does Attachment Develop in Infancy? The Significance of Attachment Some developmentalists believe secure attachment in first year provides important foundation for psychological development Others believe too much emphasis is placed on attachment bond in infancy Ignores diversity of socializing agents and contexts

Caregiving Styles and Attachment Classification How Does Attachment Develop in Infancy? Caregiving Styles and Attachment Classification Baby attachment Caregiver behaviors Securely attached Sensitive to signals, consistently available Avoidant Unavailable, rejecting Resistant Inconsistent responses Disorganized Neglect, physical abuse

The Family The Transition to Parenthood How Do Social Contexts Influence Socioemotional Development in Infancy? The Family The Transition to Parenthood New parents must adapt to new demands on time, finances, and roles Babies affect parents’ marriage Most less satisfied after child is born Almost 1/3 happier, more interested in relationships, more efficient

Reciprocal Socialization How Do Social Contexts Influence Socioemotional Development in Infancy? Reciprocal Socialization Socialization is bidirectional Scaffolding: positive parental behavior supports children’s efforts Children’s skills increase Support modified to suit children’s level of development

The Family The family as a system How Do Social Contexts Influence Socioemotional Development in Infancy? The Family The family as a system Made up of subsystems defined by gender, generation, and role; dyadic and polyadic Indirect and direct influences from marital relations, parenting, and infant behavior

The Family Infant caregiving How Do Social Contexts Influence Socioemotional Development in Infancy? The Family Infant caregiving Mothers and fathers both competent caregivers, but behave differently Mothers: center on child-care activities Fathers: more likely to center on play, rough-and-tumble activities

Child Care Policies Around the World How Do Social Contexts Influence Socioemotional Development in Infancy? Child Care Policies Around the World Five types of parental leave Maternity leave Paternity leave Parental leave Child-rearing leave Family leave

Patterns of Use of Child Care How Do Social Contexts Influence Socioemotional Development in Infancy? Patterns of Use of Child Care High reliance and early entry By 4 months, nearly 3/4 of infants have had some non-maternal child care Socioeconomic factors affect amount and type of care Income level, education Dependence on mother’s income

High-Quality Child Care How Do Social Contexts Influence Socioemotional Development in Infancy? High-Quality Child Care Small group sizes Low child-adult ratios Teachers: specialized training, formally educated, experienced Caregiver sensitivity to children Children linked to higher competence

Child Care Amount of child care Family and parenting influences How Do Social Contexts Influence Socioemotional Development in Infancy? Child Care Amount of child care High-quality care and fewer hours in care lead to positive outcomes Family and parenting influences Influence not weakened by extensive child care; parents significant influence in children regulating emotions

Strategies for Child Care How Do Social Contexts Influence Socioemotional Development in Infancy? Strategies for Child Care Recognize quality of parenting on your child’s development Make good parenting decisions Monitor your child’s development Take time to find best child care

Children 8 The End