Introduction to the Religion, Philosophy & Ethics A Level

A Linear Course 3 x 2 hour written exams 33 A Linear Course 3 x 2 hour written exams 33.33% each Religion Philosophy Ethics 80 marks 3 sections

BUT your first year will be like an AS Level

End of Year 12 3 x 1 hour written exams 33 End of Year 12 3 x 1 hour written exams 33.33% each Religion Philosophy Ethics 54 marks 2 sections

What is it all about? I think philosophy is about….

It’s mostly all Greek Philosophia = love of human wisdom

Come up with a brief argument for the following: Are we conscious or unconscious? Is this reality the only reality? Are we lesser beings? Does that chair exist when we are not looking at it? Would green be green if we didn’t call it green?

Why should I study Philosophy? READING: Skim read ‘The value of Philosophy’ article by Bertrand Russell. What kind of questions does philosophy consider? Why, according to Russell, is philosophy valuable?

Types of Proof listen to Phoebe give her arguments to prove there is no evolution.

How are the arguments presented. What was weak and strong about them How are the arguments presented? What was weak and strong about them? A good argument contains….

You should carefully study the art of reasoning, as it is what most people are very deficient in and I know few things more disagreeable than to argue or even converse with a man who has no idea of inductive and deductive philosophy” William J Wills (explorer)

Consider the following conversation: “Fahim, you need to to tidy your room” “But why?” “Because I said so!” Only a parent can get away with answering like this. But even parents sometimes have trouble using this approach to make a convincing argument. It is important to provide reasons to support an argument you make.

Proofs “An argument which starts from one or more premises, which are propositions taken for granted for the purpose of the argument, and argues to a conclusion.” Swinburne

Come up with 3 of your own tautologies and 1 mathematical proof. PREMISE + PREMISE = CONCLUSION P+P=C Sometimes there is only one premise P=C A proof is a statement that cannot be false: 4+4=8. This is a logically necessary mathematical statement because it cannot be disputed and to suggest an alternative answer would seem stupid. A tautology is when the definition of a word makes the conclusion undeniable. “a circle is round” “the Queen of England is female” Come up with 3 of your own tautologies and 1 mathematical proof.

Is “sings well” and “men” a tautology? Some proofs only lead to conclusions that are possible or probable. Evidence points to a conclusion but there could be more than one outcome P1: The sun is shining today P2: The sun shone yesterday C: The sun will shine tomorrow P1: Yahia sings well P2: Yahia is a man C: All men sing well Is “sings well” and “men” a tautology? Why or why not?

Non-argument: Argument: P1: Get us some milk, please P1: All humans are mortal P2: G.W. Bush is a human P3: Therefore, G.W. Bush is mortal P1: Get us some milk, please P2: Is anyone home? P3: Therefore, G.W. Bush is mortal

What makes a good argument? Good arguments are ones that offer good support for the conclusion. There are two key features of a good argument: Good Premises: every premise of the argument is true (or at least plausible or likely to be true). Good Form: the premises, if true, render the conclusion true or probable. Philosophers call arguments that have these two features logically sound (“sound” for short). If an argument fails to have either one of these features, it isn’t a good argument; it doesn’t give us any reason to believe the conclusion. Good form has to do with the logical form of the argument, not whether the premises are in fact true or false.

Good and bad arguments: P1: All women are Republican P2: Hilary Clinton is a woman P3: Therefore, Hilary Clinton is a Republican Good form, bad premises (some are false) Good form, good premises P1: If Donald trump won the 2016 presidential election, then a republican is currently president of the US P2: Trump won the 2016 presidential election P3: Therefore, a Republican is currently president P1: Some men are Democrats P2: G.W. Bush is a man P3: Therefore, G.W. Bush is a Republican Bad form, good premises (they are true)

Good forms of arguments: Modus Ponens: P1: If P, then Q P2: P P3: So, Q Modus Tollens: P1: If P, then Q P2: Not-Q P3: So, not P P1: If [Mohamed went to Disneyland], then [he will have brought a souvenir back]. P2: [Mohamed went to Disneyland]. P3: So, [Mohamed brought back a souvenir]. P1: If [Mohamed went to Disneyland], then [he will have brought a souvenir back]. P2: [Mohamed didn’t bring back a souvenir]. P3: So, [Mohamed didn’t go to the Disneyland].

Inductive a posteriori (synthetic) arguments. Inductive reasoning starts from observation and leads to a conclusion.

P1: The sun shines in July P2: The sun is shining C: It is July This conclusion is not logically necessary. Why? P1: Mr Brown had the opportunity to murder Mr Green P2: Mr Brown had the motive to murder Mr Green C: Mr Brown murdered Mr Green How can we be sure Mr Brown murdered Mr Green? Construct your own inductive proof.

Deductive a priori (analytic) arguments. Deductive reasoning does the opposite of inductive. We start with the conclusion and see if the evidence is valid. You must ask these questions when using deductive reasoning: What is the conclusion? What evidence supports it? Is that evidence logical? If you can answer yes to question 3 then the conclusion is logical and sound.

Deductive a priori (analytic) arguments. Inductive: Evidence > Conclusion (IEC) Deductive: Conclusion > Evidence (DCE)

Construct your own deductive proof. P1: Brittany is a spinster P2: A spinster is an unmarried female C: Brittany is an unmarried female This conclusion is logically necessary. Why? P1: All female monarchs are Queens P2: Elizabeth is a female monarch C: Elizabeth is a Queen What would happen if you used bachelor or King instead? Construct your own deductive proof.

In pairs, decide which arguments are inductive and which are deductive.

Types of knowledge How do you ‘know’ the following things (if you know them): All swans are white All spinsters are unmarried women If George V reigned at least four days, then he reigned more than three days 10x10= 100 George V reigned from 1910 to 1936 The grass is green Triangles have three sides

A priori knowledge A priori knowledge is what we know without any experience of the world Some argue that maths is a priori. Deductive arguments are definitely a priori. Some philosophers go as far as to say that God’s existence can be known a priori (i.e. you need never ‘experience’ God to know that he exists)

A posteriori knowledge A posteriori knowledge is what we know only be experiencing the world That snow is white, is something we can only know by experiencing snow and therefore is a posteriori knowledge. That Australia is a hot country is also a posteriori Some philosophers will argue that a posteriori knowledge is the only useful knowledge.

What is the difference? Write a paragraph in your books explaining the difference between a priori and posteriori knowledge. Make sure you use examples to illustrate the difference.

Inductive v Deductive Proofs Look at the strengths and weaknesses statements. They relate to either inductive or deductive proof. Match them up.

The Teleological Argument Thomas Aquinas Fifth Way The Teleological Argument Paley Watch analogy Eye analogy Design Qua Regularity Design Qua Purpose Swinburne Regularities of co-presence Regularities of succession