1 9 C H A P T E R FAMILIES, KINSHIP, AND DESCENT 19-2

FAMILIES, KINSHIP, AND DESCENT Kinship Calculation Kinship Terminology 3

FAMILIES, KINSHIP, AND DESCENT Why and how do anthropologists study kinship? How do families and descent groups differ, and what are their social correlates? How is kinship calculated, and how are relatives classified, in various societies?

FAMILIES Understanding a society’s kinship system is essential part of anthropology Descent group: group based on belief in a shared ancestry

NUCLEAR AND EXTENDED FAMILIES Nuclear family: mother, father, and biological children Family of orientation: family in which one is born and grows up Family of procreation: formed when one marries and has children In most societies, relations with nuclear family members take precedence over relations with other kin

NUCLEAR AND EXTENDED FAMILIES The nuclear family is widespread, but not universal In many societies, extended families are the primary unit of social organization Muslims of western Bosnia: zadruga Nayars of Malabar Coast of India

Figure 19.1: Location of the Nayars in India’s Kerala Province 8

INDUSTRIALISM AND FAMILY ORGANIZATION Family of procreation living neolocally most prevalent residence pattern in North America Neolocality: married couples may live hundreds of miles from parents Extended family household: expanded family household that includes three or more generations Within stratified nations, value systems and kinship vary from class to class

CHANGES IN NORTH AMERICAN KINSHIP Nuclear families accounted for 21% of U.S. households in 2010 Increasing representation of women in the work force associated with rise in marriage age from 21 years (1970) to 26.5 (2011) Between 1970 and 2010, the number of divorced Americans rose from 4.3 million to 23.7 million The rate of growth of single-parent families has outstripped population growth

CHANGES IN NORTH AMERICAN KINSHIP 51% of women said they were living without a spouse in 2005, compared with 35% in 1950 and 49% in 2000 The growing isolation from kin may well be unprecedented in human history Striking contrast to Brazil in meaning and role of family

Table 19.1: Changes in Family and Household Organization in the United States: 1970 versus 2010 12

Figure 19.2: Households by Type: Selected Years, 1970–2010 (Percent Distribution) 13

Table 19. 2: Ratio of Divorces to Marriages per 1,000 U. S Table 19.2: Ratio of Divorces to Marriages per 1,000 U.S. Population, Selected Years, 1950–2010 14

Table 19.3: Household and Family Size in the United States and Canada, 1980 versus 2010 15

THE FAMILY AMONG FORAGERS The nuclear family and band are two basic units of social organization among foragers Nuclear families are more stable than bands Many foraging societies lacked year-round band organization Shoshoni

Figure 19.3: Location of the Shoshoni 17

DESCENT Matrilineal descent: individuals automatically join mother’s descent group when they are born Patrilineal descent: individuals automatically join father’s descent group when they are born Unilineal descent: descent rule uses one line

DESCENT GROUPS Lineage: unilineal descent group based on demonstrated descent Clan: descent group that claims common descent from an apical ancestor but cannot demonstrate it (stipulated descent)

LINEAGES, CLANS, AND RESIDENCE RULES Descent groups are permanent, enduring units To endure, descent groups need to keep some members at home Descent groups establish rules about who belongs to the group and where they should live after they are married

LINEAGES, CLANS, AND RESIDENCE RULES Patrilocality: married couple lives with husband’s family; associated with patrilineal descent and more common than matrilocality Matrilocality: married couple lives with wife’s family; associated with matrilineal descent and less common than patrilocality

Figure 19.4: A Matrilineage Five Generations Deep 22

Figure 19.5: A Patrilineage Five Generations Deep 23

AMBILINEAL DESCENT Ambilineal descent: People choose the descent group to which they belong Membership achieved Membership is fluid People can change their descent-group membership or belong to two or more groups at the same time

FAMILY VERSUS DESCENT Many societies have both families and descent groups Obligations to one may conflict with obligations to the other Compared to patrilineal systems, matrilineal societies tend to have higher divorce rates and greater female promiscuity

KINSHIP CALCULATION Kinship calculation: how people in a society reckon their kin relationships Ego: the position from which one views an egocentric genealogy

GENEALOGICAL KIN TYPES AND KIN TERMS Genealogical kin types: relates to actual genealogical relationship (father’s brother) as opposed to kin term (uncle) Kin terms reflect social construction of kinship in a given culture Bilateral kinship: people tend to perceive kin links through males and females as being similar or equal

KINSHIP TERMINOLOGY Kinship terminology is a classification system Anthropologists have found limited patterns in which people classify their kin Functional explanation: can relate particular customs to other features of a society

LINEAL TERMINOLOGY A native taxonomy has been developed over generations by the people who live in a particular society Lineal kinship terminology: four parental kin terms (M, F, FB-MB, and MZ-FZ) Lineal relative: ego’s direct descendant Collateral relatives: relative outside ego’s direct line, e.g., B, Z, FB, MZ Affinals: relatives by marriage

BIFURCATE MERGING TERMINOLOGY Bifurcate merging kinship terminology: splits mother’s side from father’s side, but also merges same-sex siblings of each parent Associated with unilineal descent and unilocal residence

GENERATIONAL TERMINOLOGY Generational kinship terminology: uses the same term for parents and their siblings, but lumping is more complete; M=MZ=FZ and F=FB=MB Does not distinguish between mother’s and father’s sides Typical of ambilineal societies Also characterizes certain foraging bands

BIFURCATE COLLATERAL TERMINOLOGY Bifurcate collateral terminology: separate terms are used for each of six kin types of the parental generation; M, F, MB, MZ, FB, and FZ Not as common as other types Many societies that use it are in North Africa and the Middle East

Figure 19.6: Kinship Symbols and Genealogical Kin Type Notation 33

Figure 19.7: Lineal Kinship Terminology 34

Figure 19.8: The Distinctions Among Lineals, Collaterals, and Affinals as Perceived by Ego 35

Figure 19.9: Bifurcate Merging Kinship Terminology 36

Figure 19.10: Generational Kinship Terminology 37

Figure 19.11: Bifurcate Collateral Kinship Terminology 38

RECAP 19.1: The Four Systems of Kinship Terminology, with Their Social and Economic Correlates 39