15 choices... 5 positive 5 negative ...5 wrong Use the scroll wheel , click the background or use the arrow keys to move between topics – you can go backwards and forwards! Methods Wipeout! Approaches GRAVE Debates 15 choices... 5 positive 5 negative ...5 wrong 1 point for the first pick, 2 for second... Up to 10 for the final pick. Get a wrong answer, lose all your points! Top two teams bid for the final board. Core Studies

Alternative hypothesis Terminology Internal validity Validity Applicability Matched pairs Alternative hypothesis Replicability Reliability Repeatability Ethicability Individual External validity Concurrent validity Determination Situationalise Longitudinal

Observation No cause and effect Can be reductionist Allows participants to react naturally to stimulus Offers situational explanations of behaviour Can cover a variety of natural situations Allows for easy comparison of behaviours Highly subjective Can present ethical issues Does not show why You can naturally observe the DV Not easily replicable Triangulation Low demand characteristics High ecological validity Does not require consent

Experiments Cannot control all confounding variables, affecting validity Concurrent validity Quantitative data Cause and effect Low ecological validity Demand characteristics Controls extraneous variables Always highly ethical Can ignore situational factors Can be easily replicated Objective Allows correlation to be identified Not a valid measure Difficult to apply appropriately Ignores social factors

Self-Report Likert scales ‘draw’ responses to the extremes High in ecological validity Allows thoughts and feelings to be assessed Researcher bias Used to research specific topics Difficult to set an IV and DV Rich, in-depth data Can be subjective Difficult to clarify validity Samples not usually generalisable Social desirability bias Qualitative data Quantitative data Low reliability Likert-scales allow for a quick easy response

Correlation Shows a connection between two variables Can be affected by anomalies Does not use qualitative data Can suggest the strength of a relationship Does not control for any extraneous variables Does not show cause and effect Can be reductionist Reliability is affected by the variables used Lacks any direct applications Is best for physiological studies Has high reliability Has high internal validity Provides the basis for further research Is not ethnocentric Allows study of variables that are awkward to manipulate

Cognitive Does not explain how An IV and a DV can be set Explores thought patterns Easily replicable Offers quantitative data Can sometimes gather qualitative data May not be truly valid Low ecological validity Can be reductionist Can take less time to carry out Could be seen to ignore social aspects Could be seen to be deterministic Has subjective aspects of the variables Derived from behaviourism Validity can be enhanced through replication

Developmental Tracks behavioural changes through time Longitudinal studies Human development is driven by certain forces Behaviour in adulthood is affected by experiences Some behaviours are innate, others are learnt Only looks at a few specific behaviours Focuses overly on childhood Can lead to over generalisation Is interest in behaviours we pick up later in life Use of case studies is not fully generalisable Ignores the individual Allows for set stages of development Focuses on the thought processes behind behaviour Is observation based Snapshot studies result in participant variability

Physiological/Biological Animal testing is ok Behaviours can change throughout our lives Behaviour can affect our neurology Animal testing can be generalised to humans Some behaviours are natural Gender is a physiological factor Cognition and physiology interact Looks intently at a specific factor Can be reductionist Includes DNA and evolution Hormones can affect behaviour Behaviour can affect your environment We learn some of our behaviours Quantitative data is collected We can develop models of behaviour

Sociocultural Humans have a desire to belong People’s views don’t change too much Festinger – Cognitive Dissonance Katz – Black people perform worse on IQ tests out of fear Rabbie and Klee – Minimal Group Paradigm Behaviour is influenced by culture Observations provide ecologically valid data Milgram explored conformity Attributions can be situational or dispositional Zimbardo – the BBC prison study Lee didn’t do fundamental... ROSS Katz not fear – only when told being compared to white people, 60s We can develop stereotypes from our ‘gate-keepers’ Lee – Fundamental Attribution Error Foot-in-the-door, low-balling, reciprocity, begging Bandura – Social Learning Theory Asch – people conform to majorities 1/3 of the time

Individual Differences Is unethical Lacks generalisability Is reductionist Generalise differences, not similarities Self-fulfilling prophecies Ignores the situation Abnormal behaviours Highlights (instead of celebrates) differences Relies on self-report Quasi samples Griffiths, Gambling Baron-Cohen, Autism Study of mental illness Focuses on the individual Demand characteristics

Generalisability Who is in a study Whether a study is realistic Can be improved using a larger sample Can be specific Linked to the application Reduced when using a quasi sample Dependent on sampling method Random sample Dependent on the realism of task All studies are generalisable Who a study applies to Linked to characteristics of sample Dependent on the validity of the measure Some studies are not generalisable Self-selected sample

Reliability Affected by the measure of the DV Are the results consistent? Is the DV measuring what you wanted to? Can be increased with a larger sample Objectivity Low in correlation Subjectivity Linked to a clear procedure Affected by extraneous variables Needs clear controls Qualitative data Affected by ethnocentricity Improved using qualitative and quantitative data Requires a clear IV Can the study be replicated?

Application Not the results, the conclusions Each approach has its own applications Ethics directly affects application Linked to generalisability Improved with ecologically valid situations Affected by reliability Only as good as the generalisability Usefulness How the results can be used Reduced with poor validity Must be linked to the real world Linked to alternate hypothesis Reliable studies have better applications Better with experiments Cause and effect gives direct application

Validity Affected by reductionism Matching the aim Affected by sample Internal validity Truthfulness of the measure Dependent on reliability Improved by lab experiments Poor when using qualitative data Dependent on situation Measuring what is intended External validity Has cause and effect Can be ecological Requires accurate DV measure Reduced by artificial tasks

Ethical considerations Informed consent Dessent Protection from harm Mental health considerations Brief Respect for people’s rights Beneficence and nonmaleficence Fidelity and responsibility Disseminate information Confidentiality Assent Mundane realism Debrief Must benefit human kind Integrity

Reductionism Can be simplistic Direct explanations for behaviour Ignores other explanations Gives great insight To reduce a behaviour to a single factor Can be deterministic Only focuses on one possible cause Involves small factors interacting Lots of data on one topic Social psychology is rarely reductionist Can offer interactionist explanations Is usually objective Offers cause and effect Is a negative aspect of experiments The biological approach is commonly reductionist

Determinism Seen in cognitive approach Allows for prediction Reduces ecological validity Seen in biological approach Can be through prior interaction Does not allow for free will Explains what we should do in a situation Situational explanation Explains individuals behaviours Can be through environment Can be reductionist Explains why we act in certain ways Defines behaviour through effort Created through cause and effect Supports the behaviourist perspective

Situational Behaviours caused by the environment Those around you affecting your decisions Defines behaviours in certain places Piliavin, Subway Samaritan Personals choices about where to go Reducing free will Over-rides inner cognition Shows cause and effect Ignores individual differences Overlooks other factors Explains actions in different environments Conformity and compliance Can be used to predict behaviour As opposed to individual Has ecological validity

Ecological Validity Task Situation Mundane reality Observations Application Control Extraneous variables Experiments Easier to manipulate variables when low Dement and Kleitman, Sleep and Dreaming Internal validity Reliability Either present or not present Only in observations Linked to experimental design

Loftus and Palmer Cognitive Developmental Physiological Social Watching crashes is unethical Reliability Tested strength of memory Sample made up of male students Ecological validity Exp. 2 = crashed and hit Shows reliability of memory Exp. 1 = 150 students in 5 groups Not fully generalisable Convenience sample Driving experience could be confounding Unusual task Used 7 clips Hid the critical question Smashed, crashed, contacted, hit and bumped Cognitive Developmental Physiological Social Individual

Baron-Cohen Cognitive Developmental Physiological Social Individual Mirrors the Sally-Anne Test Uses 25 sets of eyes Is not generalisable due to gender bias Concurrent validity through Happe’s Strange Stories Involved control tests, such as the Sally Anne Only tests one aspect of Theory of Mind Lacks ecological validity Tested mental states, not just emotions Not like real life Establishes Theory of Mind 12 participants with Tourette’s 16 high functioning autistic participants Only uses a small area of the eyes Had high levels of control Does not include low functioning autistic people Cognitive Developmental Physiological Social Individual

Savage-Rumbaugh Cognitive Developmental Physiological Social Observations carried out through filming Formal training sessions used for all chimps Unusual environment Common chimps treated differently Very small sample Recorded communication on a lexigram Used equipment not natural to chimps Kanzi was good at the formal tasks 2 pygmy chimpanzees Kanzi could make requests of others Not fully generalisable Pygmies able to differentiate within topics Chimpanzees are 98% similar to humans Chimpanzees can’t talk Sherman could answer questions Cognitive Developmental Physiological Social Individual

Samuel and Bryant Cognitive Developmental Physiological Social Following on from Piaget Large sample – 252 children Counter balancing used 3 tasks 3 defining factors for conservation Ethnocentric 3 conditions Actor was used to display aggression Set out to prove Piaget wrong Could be confusing for a child Fixed array was Piaget’s original setting Ecological validity Parents give consent Only older children can conserve Large sample – 72 children Cognitive Developmental Physiological Social Individual

Bandura, Ross and Ross Cognitive Developmental Physiological Social Does not evaluate long term effects Was developed through behaviourism Supports Social Learning Theory Lacked ecological validity Has been replicated and furthered Directly measured imitation Could be considered ethnocentric Used two-observers to improve reliability Ethically questionable, due to provocation Controlled the positions of toys/tools Controlled the ages within each condition Prior aggression could be an extraneous variable Did not allow for improvised aggression Boys were more physical, girls were more verbal Bobo dolls were designed for hitting/pushing Cognitive Developmental Physiological Social Individual

Freud Cognitive Developmental Physiological Social Individual Hans’ father lied Longitudinal Subjective Therapy helped overcome phobias Ecological validity Possible bias Theoretical basis Snapshot Agrees with Freud’s principles Freud suggested topics of conversation Freud used cocaine Lots of data Hans didn’t want to take part No proof for dream explanations Findings supported by experimental data Cognitive Developmental Physiological Social Individual

Maguire Cognitive Developmental Physiological Social Individual Reliable Developed from animal research Matched pairs Volume of the brain No left handers Extraneous variables Limited generalisability Not enough females Ecological validity Voxel based morphometry No cause and effect One profession used Shows the need for better spatial skills Shows the use of both hippocampi Controlled sample set Cognitive Developmental Physiological Social Individual

Dement and Kleitman Cognitive Developmental Physiological Social Ecological validity REM linked to dreams Slept in a lab Strict controls Self-selected sample ECG and EEG - reliable 4 studied in depth Small sample Examining the effect of waking up on dreams Slept wired up in a chair Most dreams recalled during REM Alcohol and caffeine were important factors Some dreams were recalled in NREM Participants had split brain Unusual situation Cognitive Developmental Physiological Social Individual

Sperry Cognitive Developmental Physiological Social Individual No tests prior to operation Had operation for this study Left Hemisphere = Language Can draw items with left hand Left side of the body cannot describe Varying times since operation Corpus callosum No control group Hemisphere deconnection Epilepsy could be an extraneous variable Snapshot study Estimated speeds Can draw items with right hand Deconnection affects everyday life Quasi sample Cognitive Developmental Physiological Social Individual

Milgram Cognitive Developmental Physiological Social Individual High levels of control Used standardised prods Allowed participants to leave at any time Explained conformity 26 people conformed Collected mainly qualitative data Involved deception Offered money for participants Imparted physical harm Was developed out of interest in WWII Used an IV/DV Encouraged participants to stay Money was not dependant on completion Explained autonomy Imparted stress Cognitive Developmental Physiological Social Individual

Reicher and Haslam Cognitive Developmental Physiological Social Uniforms used to promote difference Ethics panel Set on a subway Used permeability as a variable Edwards was a Christian youth worker Involved deception Subjective Self-selected sample Demand characteristics Led to tyranny Bimson was a kung fu instructor Cognitive alternative Biometric tests Used a real prison Monitored blood pressure Cognitive Developmental Physiological Social Individual

Piliavin Cognitive Developmental Physiological Social Individual More men helped the victim No conclusion was drawn from model’s assistance It was a field experiment Two female confederates ensured gender balance There was some tendency towards same-race help Participants could not leave the area Fewer drunk trials were recorded Results showed diffusion of responsibility Same race help was not a significant finding The Arousal-Cost Reward model was developed from this The victim was either blind or drunk The cane victim received more spontaneous help Ethical aspects reduce ecological validity People may react differently to a female victim Those who didn’t help felt embarassed Cognitive Developmental Physiological Social Individual

Rosenhan Cognitive Developmental Physiological Social Individual Participant observation Researchers were honest about personal details Covert Pseudopatients Validity shown through experiment two Reliability of diagnoses Subjective Possible researcher bias Powerlessness and depersonalisation 8 hospitals visited Replicability shown through experiment two Rich data Ethical considerations Doctors were more helpful than nurses Rosenhan said schizophrenia does not exist Cognitive Developmental Physiological Social Individual

Thigpen and Cleckley Cognitive Developmental Physiological Social Self fulfilling prophecy Eve White Longitudinal Rich data Personalities seemed to develop in therapy Thigpen was attracted to Eve Black Had 66 personalities Jane was the best personality Her real name was Christine Aimed to chronicle MPD Subjective Psychometric tests Researcher bias The movie won Oscars Data collected from other sources Cognitive Developmental Physiological Social Individual

Griffiths Cognitive Developmental Physiological Social Individual Cognitive bias Covert observation Set in a hospital Is gambling an addiction? Measured happiness when winning Gender imbalance Real life setting Matched pairs Irrational verbalisations Verbal protocol Self selected sample Controls Win rate Self report data Made of cheese Cognitive Developmental Physiological Social Individual