Pre WWI Conditions

The European Great Powers 1871 Germany France Great Britain Austria Russia Italy

Germany 1871 Bismarck’s view: Germany a satisfied power Unification complete, no further territorial ambitions Focus on domestic problems and economic development Maintain status as dominant power All goals required peace and stability How?: Isolate France

France 1871 Long range goal? Short range goal? Regain Alsace and Lorraine from Germany. Problem? Too weak to challenge Germany without an ally. Short range goal? Imperial expansion in Africa and Asia.

Great Britain 1871 “Splendid Isolation” Attention to far-flung colonial empire. Growing conflicts with French and Russian imperial interests in Africa and Asia.

Austria 1871 Essentially in a defensive posture. Trying to limit the growth of Slavic nationalism. A matter of survival.

Russia 1871 Continued traditional expansionist policies. Effort to advance its power in East Asia and in the Balkans. Competing interests with Austria in the Balkans led to disputes.

Italy 1871 Sought opportunities to advance claims to “great-power” status. Efforts to build a North African empire led to disputes with France.

The Three Emperors’ League (1872) Formed as a result of Bismarck’s efforts to isolate France. Emperor William I of Germany. Emperor Francis Joseph of Austria. Tsar Alexander II of Russia. All pledged cooperation to maintain peace and the status quo.

The Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78

The Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78 Background: Austro-Russian rivalry in the Balkans threatened Bismarck’s efforts to maintain ties with both. 1876: Revolt against Ottoman rule in Bulgaria. Turks slaughtered Bulgarians. Serbia and Montenegro, small autonomous Balkan states, declared war on the Ottoman Empire. Russia, big brother Slav, followed suit against Turkey in 1877.

The Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78 Treaty of San Stefano (1878): Russians forced acceptance of the treaty. Established the independence of Serbia, Montenegro, and Rumania. THIS IS KEY! Awarded scattered Turkish lands to Russia.

The Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78 Threat of Anglo-Russian War Treaty greatly increased Russian power in the Balkans. A real threat to Austrian interests there. In addition to the Austrians, the British protested Russia’s gains. Fear of the advance of Russian power toward the eastern Mediterranean. Posting of British fleet in the Turkish Straits a threat of war with Russia.

The Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78 The Congress of Berlin (1878): Bismarck presented himself as “honest peace broker” in order to avoid larger war. Intent : recognize Russian control in the eastern Balkans and Austrian control in the western Balkans. Reality: settlement favored Austria by substantially reducing Russian gains made in Russo-Turkish War.

The Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78 The Congress of Berlin (1878) (cont’d.): The Treaty of Berlin Replaced the Treaty of San Stefano. Confirmed the independence of Serbia, Montenegro, and Rumania. Seizure of Bulgarian area reduced.

The Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78 The Congress of Berlin (1878) (cont’d.): Austrian Gains As compensation for increase in Russian influence in the Balkans, Austria got: Right to occupy and administer the Turkish provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina, but not annexation. THIS IS KEY!

Wheeling and Dealing Among the Powers The Alliance System

The Dual Alliance (1879) Austro-Russian conflict in the Balkans led to the collapse of the Three Emperor’ League. 1879: Bismarck negotiated a secret defensive alliance, the “Dual Alliance” with Austria. Mutual aid in the event either partner was attacked by Russia.

Revival of the Three Emperors’ League (1881) Bismarck worked to restore friendship between Germany and Russia. Reestablishment of the Three Emperors’ League (1881). Continuing Austro-Russian conflict over the Balkans made the association very fragile.

The Triple Alliance (1882) Italy upset at France over Tunisian protectorate in North Africa. Italy sought closer ties with Germany and Austria. 1882: Triple Alliance. Secret defensive alliance of Italy, Germany, and Austria. France more isolated than ever.

The Reinsurance Treaty (1887) Russia dropped out of Three Emperors’ League due to continued tension with Austria. Wanting to maintain relations with Germany, the 2 powers sign the Reinsurance Treaty. Benevolent neutrality in case either partner became involved in war. Unless Germany attacked France (no intent) or Russia attacked Austria (see Dual Alliance).

Dismissal of Bismarck (1890) Emperor William II dismissed Bismarck. Successors less capable. 1890: Decision not to renew Reinsurance Treaty. Impossible to balance commitments to both Russia and Austria. Russia no threat to Germany: ideologically antagonistic to France. Alliance of the 2 seemed inconceivable.

The Franco-Russian Alliance (1894) Diplomatic revolution between long-isolated France and newly isolated Russia (1890s). Result: Secret military alliance, Franco-Russian Alliance (1894). Seemed directed primarily at GB, the main rival of both in the Mediterranean and Asia.

Deterioration of Anglo-German Relations William II sent telegram of support for the Boers to President Paul Kruger of Transvaal in 1896. British angered. British alarmed by Germany’s development of a high-seas fleet.

The Anglo-French Entente (1904) France, in spite of colonial tensions, believed Germany a greater threat than GB. French withdrawal from the Sudan in the Fashoda Crisis began warming of relations with GB. Experience in the Boer War convinced GB of perils of isolation.

The Anglo-French Entente (1904) (cont’d.) Entente Cordiale (1904) Diplomatic understanding dealing with colonial issues. France recognized British dominance in Egypt. British supported French claims to Morocco. Consultation on international issues of mutual interest.

Italo-French Agreement (1902) Another secret agreement. 1900s, Germany’s international position deteriorating. Italy still in the Triple Alliance. France was looking for better relations with Italy. Agreement included Italian support of French claims to Morocco in exchange for French support of Italian ambitions elsewhere in N. Africa. Austria now Germany’s only reliable ally (but they don’t know it!).

First Moroccan Crisis (1905) France was in the process of creating a protectorate in Morocco. 3/05: William II at Tangier claimed German interests in Morocco and support of Moroccan independence. Counted on Russian preoccupation with Japan and only token British support of France. If true, French ties with Russia and GB would be weakened.

First Moroccan Crisis (1905) (cont’d.) The Algeciras Conference (1906) Germans pressed for international conference to consider the status of Morocco. At conference, Germany found itself virtually isolated (only Austria supported). GB, Russia, and Italy all supported France. France continued activities in Morocco. France, Russia, and GB tied more closely.

The Anglo-Russian Entente (1907) Japan’s defeat of Russia reduced GB’s fears of Russian expansion in East Asia. GB and Russian interests continued to clash in Persia and Afghanistan. Anglo-Russian Entente negotiated at the encouragement of France. Resolved East Asian, Persian, and Afghan conflicts.

The Triple Entente The Anglo-Russian Entente of 1907 completed the process of establishing the Triple Entente of France, GB, and Russia. Triple Entente faced the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria, & Italy. Evenly balanced? Italy completely faithful? Since dismissal of Bismarck, Diplomatic balance of power tipped toward France.

Things Start to Unravel The Bosnian Crisis The Second Moroccan Crisis The Italo-Turkish War The First Balkan War The Second Balkan War The Sarajevo Crisis

The Bosnian Crisis (1908-09) Germany couldn’t restrain Austrian activities in the Balkans as it had in the past. 10/08, Austria unilaterally proclaimed the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Infuriated Russia and Serbia. Germany gave Austria full support. Threat of war with both Austria and Germany forced Russia to back down in humiliation.

The Second Moroccan Crisis (1911) Germans renewed objections to French protectorate in Morocco. Agadir Incident: German warship, Panther, showed up at Moroccan port of Agadir purportedly to protect German interests. France eased tension by ceding part of French Congo to Germany in return for German recognition of French position in Morocco.

The Second Moroccan Crisis (1911) (cont’d.) German belligerent diplomacy caused alarm. GB concentrated warships in North Sea. France shifted bulk of navy to Mediterranean.

The Italo-Turkish War (1911-12) 1911, Italy went to war with the Ottoman Empire in an attempt to take Tripoli in North Africa. Reasons of international prestige and as compensation for French acquisition of Morocco. Easy win for Italy over crumbling Ottoman Empire.

The First Balkan War (1912-13) Italy’s easy win inspired Balkan states to press their demands against the Ottoman Empire. 1912, the Balkan League (Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro, and Greece) went to war with Turkey. Treaty of London (1913): Ottomans lost all Euro territory except next to the Turkish Straits.

The First Balkan War (1912-13) Both Austria and Russia intervened diplomatically at the close of war. International conference in London (1913): Russia supported Serbia’s demand for access to the Adriatic Sea. Austria desired establishment of Albania to contain Serbian expansion. Austrian position supported. Setback for Serbia and Russia. Once again, the Russians had to give way in the Balkans to Austria.

The Second Balkan War (1913) Serbia and Bulgaria disputed control of Macedonia. Serbia, Montenegro, Greece, Rumania, and Turkey joined to defeat Bulgaria. Treaty of Bucharest (1913): Bulgaria ceded territory to Rumania. Serbia & Greece gained most of Macedonia. Tensions ran high in Balkans. Russians support Serbs. Germans support Austrians.