Reading Arguments Critically Chapter 9 Reading Arguments Critically

Arguments What is an argument? A writing that attempts to open readers’ minds to an opinion, change readers’ opinion, or move readers to action.

Arguments What is a good argument? A work of negotiation and problem solving. Both reader and writer search for knowledge to create common ground between them. Readers job: know whether you’re convinced by the argument

Elements of Argument 3 Main Elements Claims: positive statements that require support (thesis statement) Evidence: facts, examples, expert opinions, and other information that support the claim Assumptions: writer’s underlying beliefs, opinions, etc that tie the evidence to the claim

Questions for Critically Reading an Argument What claim does the writer make? What kinds of quality evidence does the writer provide to support the claims. What assumptions underlie the argument, connecting evidence to claims? Are they believable? Is the writer reasonable? Is the argument logical? Are you convinced? Why or why not?

Recognizing Opinions Opinion – a judgment based on facts and arguable on the basis of facts Do not make arguments by themselves You must satisfy yourself that the writer has specified evidence for the opinions. Example: The new room fees are unjustified given the condition of the dormitories.

Last year tuition increased 16 percent. Recognizing Facts Fact – A verifiable statement that can be proved as true Example: Last year tuition increased 16 percent. Claim of fact cannot work as the thesis of an argument. Facts offer crucial evidence for the claim

Abortion is legalized murder. Recognizing Beliefs Belief – A conviction based on cultural or personal faith, morality, or values Often called opinions but they are not based on facts Example: Abortion is legalized murder. Cannot serve as central or supporting claims of an argument.

Recognizing Prejudices Opinion based on insufficient or unexamined evidence Example: Women are bad drivers. Athletes are unintelligent. Prejudice is testable – can be contested and disproved on the basis of facts.

Evidence for Argument Facts – verifiable statements Statistics – facts expressed in numbers Examples – specific cases Expert opinions – judgments of authorities Appeals to readers’ beliefs or needs

Criteria for Weighing Evidence Is it accurate: trustworthy, exact, undistorted? Is it relevant: authoritative, pertinent, current? Is it representative: true to context? Is it adequate: plentiful, specific?

Watching Language, Hearing Tone The expression of the writer’s attitudes toward himself or herself, toward the subject, toward the reader. Can tell you quite a bit about the writer’s intentions, biases, and trustworthiness.

Reasonableness The sense you get as a reader that the author is fair and sincere. Writer does not conceal or hide facts, distort information, use language to manipulate you

Chapter 10 Writing an Argument

Argument Try to clarify an issue or solve a problem An argument subject must be arguable Reasonable people will disagree over it and be able to support their positions with evidence

Thesis Statement Makes a claim that you want your readers to act on. Example: The new room fees are unjustified given the condition of the dormitories. Must specify the basis of your claim

Analyzing Purpose and Audience engage your readers and convince them of your position or persuade them to act Depends on the response of your readers (audience) Need a sense of who they are and where they stand

Using Reason 2 types of reasoning: Inductive Deductive The thesis of your argument is a conclusion you reach by reasoning about evidence. 2 types of reasoning: Inductive make specific observations and you induce or infer a generalization (or claim) Example: Model X is the most reliable. Deductive Proceed from generalization to your own specific circumstances See pgs. 200 &201

Using Reason

Using Evidence Argument’s reasonableness depends on your evidence Kind and quantity of evidence you use should be determined on your purpose, your subject and the needs of your audience.

Responsible Use of Evidence Don’t distort Don’t stack the deck Don’t exaggerate Don’t oversimplify Don’t manipulate

Reaching Your Readers Appeal to their reason and emotions Present yourself as someone worth reading You account for views opposing your own

Rational and Emotional Appeals Most arguments combine both Rational appeals Appeals to readers’ capacities for reasoning logically b/t evidence and claims Emotional appeals Appeals to readers’ beliefs and feelings

Ethical Appeal Sense you are being a competent, fair, trustworthy person Ample evidence Appropriate emotional appeals demonstrate you share readers’ beliefs and needs Correct in grammar, spelling, etc – underscores confidence Sincere tone – assure readers you are a balanced person who wants to reason with them

Ethical Appeal - AVOID Insulting words Biased language Sarcasm Exclamation points

Responding to Opposing Views Good test of reasonableness is how you handle possible objections You show yourself as honorable and fair Strengthen your ethical appeal thus your entire argument Common way to handle them – state them, then refute the ones you can. Demonstrate why they are less compelling

Organizing your Argument Introduction – establishes significance of the subject Body – state and develop the claims supporting the thesis using relevant evidence Response to opposing views – addresses views, finds common ground, demonstrate greater strengths, etc. Conclusion – completes the argument, restates the thesis, summarizes the supporting claims, makes final appeal to readers