AP Biology Lab Review

Big Idea 1: Evolution

Lab 1: Artificial Selection Concepts: Natural selection = differential reproduction in a population Populations change over time  evolution Natural Selection vs. Artificial Selection

Lab 1: Artificial Selection Description: Use Wisconsin Fast Plants to perform artificial selection Identify traits and variations in traits Cross-pollinate (top 10%) for selected trait Collect data for 2 generations (P and F1)

Sample Histogram of a Population

Lab 1: Artificial Selection Analysis & Results: Calculate mean, median, standard deviation, range Are the 2 populations before and after selection (P and F1) actually different? Are the 2 sub-populations of F1 (hairy vs. non-hairy) different? Are the means statistically different? A T-test could be used to determine if 2 sets of data are statistically different from each other

Lab 2: Mathematical Modeling: Hardy-Weinberg Concepts: Evolution = change in frequency of alleles in a population from generation to generation Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Allele Frequencies (p + q = 1) Genotypic Frequencies (p2+2pq+q2 = 1) Conditions: large population random mating no mutations no natural selection no migration

Lab 2: Mathematical Modeling: Hardy-Weinberg Description: Generate mathematical models and computer simulations to see how a hypothetical gene pool changes from one generation to the next Use Microsoft Excel spreadsheet p = frequency of A allele q = frequency of B allele

Lab 2: Mathematical Modeling: Hardy-Weinberg

Lab 2: Mathematical Modeling: Hardy-Weinberg Setting up Excel spreadsheet

Lab 2: Mathematical Modeling: Hardy-Weinberg Sample Results

Lab 2: Mathematical Modeling: Hardy-Weinberg Analysis & Results: Null model: in the absence of random events that affect populations, allele frequencies (p,q) should be the same from generation to generation (H-W equilibrium) Analyze genetic drift and the effect of selection on a given population Manipulate parameters in model: Population size, selection (fitness), mutation, migration, genetic drift

Lab 2: Mathematical Modeling: Hardy-Weinberg Real-life applications: Cystic fibrosis, polydactyly Heterozygote advantage (Sickle-Cell Anemia)

Lab 3: Comparing DNA Sequences using BLAST  Evolutionary Relationships Concepts: Bioinformatics: combines statistics, math modeling, computer science to analyze biological data Genomes can be compared to detect genetic similarities and differences BLAST = Basic Local Alignment Search Tool Input gene sequence of interest Search genomic libraries for identical or similar sequences

Lab 3: Comparing DNA Sequences using BLAST  Evolutionary Relationships Description: Use BLAST to compare several genes Use information to construct a cladogram (phylogenetic tree) Cladogram = visualization of evolutionary relatedness of species

Lab 3: Comparing DNA Sequences using BLAST  Evolutionary Relationships

Use this data to construct a cladogram of the major plant groups Lab 3: Comparing DNA Sequences using BLAST  Evolutionary Relationships Use this data to construct a cladogram of the major plant groups

Lab 3: Comparing DNA Sequences using BLAST  Evolutionary Relationships Fossil specimen in China DNA was extracted from preserved tissue Sequences from 4 genes were analyzed using BLAST

Lab 3: Comparing DNA Sequences using BLAST  Evolutionary Relationships

Lab 3: Comparing DNA Sequences using BLAST  Evolutionary Relationships Analysis & Results: BLAST results: the higher the score, the closer the alignment The more similar the genes, the more recent their common ancestor  located closer on the cladogram

Lab 3: Comparing DNA Sequences using BLAST  Evolutionary Relationships

Big Idea 2: cellular processes: energy and communication

Lab 4: Diffusion & Osmosis Concepts: Selectively permeable membrane Diffusion (high  low concentration) Osmosis (aquaporins) Water potential ()  = pressure potential (P) + solute potential (S) Solutions: Hypertonic hypotonic isotonic

Lab 4: Diffusion & Osmosis

Lab 4: Diffusion & Osmosis Description: Surface area and cell size vs. rate of diffusion Cell modeling: dialysis tubing + various solutions (distilled water, sucrose, salt, glucose, protein) Identify concentrations of sucrose solution and solute concentration of potato cores Observe osmosis in onion cells (effect of salt water)

Lab 4: Diffusion & Osmosis

Potato Cores in Different Concentrations of Sucrose

Lab 4: Diffusion & Osmosis Conclusions Water moves from high water potential ( ) (hypotonic=low solute) to low water potential () (hypertonic=high solute) Solute concentration & size of molecule affect movement across selectively permeable membrane

Lab 5: Photosynthesis Concepts: Photosynthesis 6H2O + 6CO2 + Light  C6H12O6 + 6O2 Ways to measure the rate of photosynthesis: Production of oxygen (O2) Consumption of carbon dioxide (CO2)

Lab 5: Photosynthesis Description: Paper chromatography to identify pigments Floating disk technique Leaf disks float in water Gases can be drawn from out from leaf using syringe  leaf sinks Photosynthesis  O2 produced  bubbles form on leaf  leaf disk rises Measure rate of photosynthesis by O2 production Factors tested: types of plants, light intensity, colors of leaves, pH of solutions

Plant Pigments & Chromatography

Floating Disk Technique

Lab 5: Photosynthesis Concepts: photosynthesis Photosystems II, I H2O split, ATP, NADPH chlorophylls & other plant pigments chlorophyll a chlorophyll b xanthophylls carotenoids experimental design control vs. experimental

Lab 6: Cellular Respiration Concepts: Respiration Measure rate of respiration by: O2 consumption CO2 production

Lab 6: Cellular Respiration Description: Use respirometer Measure rate of respiration (O2 consumption) in various seeds Factors tested: Non-germinating seeds Germinating seeds Effect of temperature Surface area of seeds Types of seeds Plants vs. animals

Lab 6: Cellular Respiration

Lab 6: Cellular Respiration

Lab 6: Cellular Respiration Conclusions: temp = respiration germination = respiration Animal respiration > plant respiration  surface area =  respiration Calculate Rate

Lab 6: Cellular Respiration

Big Idea 3: genetics and information transfer

Lab 7: Mitosis & Meiosis Concepts: Cell Cycle (G1  S  G2  M) Control of cell cycle (checkpoints) Cyclins & cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) Mitosis vs. Meiosis Crossing over  genetic diversity

Lab 7: Mitosis & Meiosis

Lab 7: Mitosis & Meiosis

Lab 7: Mitosis & Meiosis Description: Model mitosis & meiosis (pipecleaners, beads) How environment affects mitosis of plant roots Lectin - proteins secreted by fungus Root stimulating powder Count # cells in interphase, mitosis Observe karyotypes (cancer, mutations) Meiosis & crossing over in Sordaria (fungus)

Lab 7: Mitosis & Meiosis

Lab 7: Mitosis & Meiosis

Abnormal karyotype = Cancer

Meiosis: Crossing over in Prophase I

Lab 7: Mitosis & Meiosis Observed crossing over in fungus (Sordaria) Arrangement of ascospores

distance from centromere Sordaria Analysis % crossover total crossover total offspring = distance from centromere % crossover 2 =

Lab 8: Bacterial Transformation Concepts: Transformation: uptake of foreign DNA from surroundings Plasmid = small ring of DNA with a few genes Replicates separately from bacteria DNA Can carry genes for antibiotic resistance Genetic engineering: recombinant DNA = pGLO plasmid

Lab 8: Bacterial Transformation

Lab 8: Bacterial Transformation

Lab 8: Bacterial Transformation Conclusions: Foreign DNA inserted using vector (plasmid) Ampicillin = Selecting agent No transformation = no growth on amp+ plate Regulate genes by transcription factors (araC protein)

Lab 9: Restriction Enzyme Analysis of DNA Concepts: Restriction Enzymes Cut DNA at specific locations Gel Electrophoresis DNA is negatively charged Smaller fragments travel faster

Lab 9: Restriction Enzyme Analysis of DNA Description

Lab 9: Restriction Enzyme Analysis of DNA Determine DNA fragment sizes

Lab 9: Restriction Enzyme Analysis of DNA Conclusions: Restriction enzymes cut at specific locations (restriction sites) DNA is negatively charged Smaller DNA fragments travel faster than larger fragments Relative size of DNA fragments can be determined by distance travelled Use standard curve to calculate size

Big Idea 4: interactions

Lab 10: Energy Dynamics Concepts: Biomass = mass of dry weight Energy from sunlight  drives photosynthesis (store E in organic compounds) Gross Productivity (GPP) = energy captured But some energy is used for respiration (R) Net primary productivity (NPP) = GPP – R Energy flows! (but matter cycles) Producers  consumers Biomass = mass of dry weight

Lab 10: Energy Dynamics Pyramid of Energy Pyramid of Biomass Pyramid of Numbers

Lab 10: Energy Dynamics Description: Brassica (cabbage)  cabbage white butterfly larvae (caterpillars)

Lab 10: Energy Dynamics Measuring Biomass: Cabbage  mass lost Caterpillar  mass gained Caterpillar frass (poop)  dry mass

Lab 10: Energy Dynamics Conclusions:

Lab 10: Energy Dynamics Conclusions: Energy is lost (respiration, waste) Conservation of Mass Input = Output

Lab 11: Transpiration Concepts: Transpiration Xylem Water potential Cohesion-tension hypothesis Stomata & Guard cells Leaf surface area & # stomata vs. rate of transpiration

Lab 11: Transpiration

Lab 11: Transpiration Description: Determine relationship between leaf surface area, # stomata, rate of transpiration Nail polish  stomatal peels Effects of environmental factors on rate of transpiration Temperature, humidity, air flow (wind), light intensity

Analysis of Stomata

Rates of Transpiration

Lab 11: Transpiration Conclusions: transpiration:  wind,  light transpiration:  humidity Density of stomata vs. transpiration Leaf surface area vs. transpiration

Lab 12: Animal Behavior Concepts: Experimental design IV, DV, control, constants Control vs. Experimental Hypothesis innate vs. learned behavior choice chambers temperature humidity light intensity salinity other factors

Lab 12: Animal Behavior Description: Investigate relationship between environmental factors vs. behavior Betta fish agonistic behavior Drosophila (fruit fly) behavior Pillbug kinesis

Lab 12: Animal Behavior

Lab 12: Animal Behavior Hypothesis Development Poor: I think pillbugs will move toward the wet side of a choice chamber. Better: If pillbugs are randomly placed on two sides of a wet/dry choice chamber and allowed to move about freely for 10 minutes, then more pillbugs will be found on the wet side because they prefer moist environments.

Lab 12: Animal Behavior Experimental Design sample size

Lab 12: Animal Behavior Data Analysis: Chi-Square Test Null hypothesis: there is no difference between the conditions Degrees of Freedom = n-1 At p=0.05, if X2 < critical value  accept null hypothesis (any differences between observed and expected due to CHANCE)

Lab 13: Enzyme Activity Concepts: Enzyme Substrate  product Structure (active site, allosteric site) Lower activation energy Substrate  product Proteins denature (structure/binding site changes)

Lab 13: Enzyme Activity Description: Determine which factors affecting rate of enzyme reaction H2O2  H2O + O2 Measure rate of O2 production catalase

Turnip peroxidase  Color change (O2 produced)

Calculate Rate of Reaction Lab 13: Enzyme Activity Conclusions: Enzyme reaction rate affected by: pH (acids, bases) Temperature Substrate concentration Enzyme concentration Calculate Rate of Reaction

Any Questions??