ETHICS, TECHNOLOGY, AND VALUE Chap 3 ETHICS, TECHNOLOGY, AND VALUE

Definition Ethos, old Greek: meaning: “character”, “habit”, “custom” In Greek rhetoric, “ethos” is one of three artistic proofs, modes of persuasion; Ethicos, old Greek: Adjective, derived from ethos; meaning: “moral”, or “of moral character” Ethics, as used today: A rational, voluntary, and moral code of conduct intended to maximize the good for people and minimize harm.

more The word “ethics” comes from an ancient Greek word “ eché “ which means character It is a field of inquiry whose subject is human actions, collectively called “human conduct” The purpose of ethics is to interpret human conduct, acknowledging and distinguishing between right and wrong.

ETHICAL THEORIES different societies human actions have been judged good or bad, right or wrong, based on theories or systems of justice developed, tested, revised, and debated by philosophers and/or elders in that society. Such theories are commonly known as ethical theories. Codes of ethics have then been drawn up based on these ethical theories.

Consequentialism: In consequentialism ethical theory, human actions are judged good or bad, right or wrong, depending on the results of such actions—a desirable result denotes a good action, and vice versa. Types Egoism: Utilitarianism: Altruism

Egoism Theory puts an individual’s interests and happiness above everything else. With egoism, any action is good as long as it maximizes an individual’s overall happiness. Types: ethical egoism: an ethical egoism theorist would prescribe to each family member how he or she ought to behave in order to achieve individual happiness first before considering the happiness of the family. psychological egoism: would describe how each individual family member actually was behaving in order to achieve his or her happiness and hence the happiness of the family as a whole

Utilitarianism Unlike egoism, this theory puts a group’s interest and happiness above those of an individual, for the good of many. an action is good if it benefits the maximum number of people. 1-Act Utilitarianism: Tells one to consider seriously the consequences of all actions before choosing the one with the best overall advantage, happiness in this case, for the maximum number of people. 2-Rule Utilitarianism: Tells one to obey those rules that bring the maximum happiness to the greatest number of people.

Altruism: In altruism an action is right if the consequences of that action are favorable to all except the actor.

Deontology Two Greek words, deon meaning duty, and logos meaning science The theory of deontological reason does not concern itself with the consequences of the action but rather with the will of the action. An action is good or bad depending on the will inherent in it. an act is considered good if the individual committing it had a good reason to do so. we know that killing is bad, but if an armed intruder enters your house

Human Nature: This theory considers human beings as endowed with all faculties and capabilities to live in happiness. We are supposed to discover and then develop those capabilities. Greek philosopher Aristotle, an individual committing an evil action is lacking in some capabilities.

Relativism: This theory is negatively formulated, denying the existence of universal moral norms. It takes right and wrong to be relative to society, culture, or the individual. Relativism also states that moral norms are not fixed in time.

Hedonism: Hedonism is one of the oldest ethical theories. It claims that pleasure is the only good thing in human life. A hedonist acts only for maximum pleasure and whatever he or she does, it is done to maximize pleasure or minimize pain.

Hedonism Types There are two types of hedonism: Psychological hedonism: which claims that in fact what people seek in their everyday actions is pleasure, Ethical hedonism: which claims that people ought to seek pleasure, and that pleasure is the moral good. Modern hedonists use the word pleasure to mean happiness

Emotivism: This theory maintains that ethical statements are neither true nor false and cannot be proven; they are really only statements about how someone feels. over the years and in different places changing values have been attached to human actions, these ethical theories have remained relatively unchanged. This means that although ethics as a discipline is evolving, ethical reasoning has relatively remained the same.

Ethical Reasoning: Is a boolian action

Functional Definition of ethics: f (a, b) → 1 {“right,” or “good”} 0 {“bad,” or “wrong”} The first set is the set of input parameters. The inputs are human actions on which it is possible to pass a judgment. The second set consists of the ethical theories discussed earlier, like consequentialism, deontology, and human nature. The third set R = {RIGHT or WRONG, GOOD or BAD},

CODES OF ETHICS 1. Principles: which may act as guidelines, references, or bases for some document. 2. Public policies: which may include aspects of acceptable behavior, norms, and practices of a society or group. 3. Codes of conduct: which may include ethical principles. 4. Legal instruments: which enforce good conduct through courts.

Association of Computing Machinery (ACM) Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct. On October 16, 1992, ACM’s Executive Council voted to adopt a revised Code of Ethics. Some imperatives and explanatory guidelines were proposed to supplement the Code as contained in the new ACM.

ACM Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct Section1: Fundamental ethical considerations. Section 2: Addresses additional, more specific considerations of professional conduct. Section 3: Pertain more specifically to individuals who have a leadership role. Section 4: Principles involving compliance with this Code.

Section 1: As an ACM member I will . . . 1.1 Contribute to society and human well-being. 1.2 Avoid harm to others. 1.3 Be honest and trustworthy. 1.4 Be fair and take action not to discriminate. 1.5 Honor property rights including copyrights and patents. 1.6 Give proper credit for intellectual property. 1.7 Respect the privacy of others. 1.8 Honor confidentiality.

Section 2:As an ACM computing professional I will . . . 2.1 Strive to achieve the highest quality, effectiveness, and dignity in both the process and products of professional work. 2.2 Acquire and maintain professional competence. 2.3 Know and respect existing laws pertaining to professional work. 2.4 Accept and provide appropriate professional review. 2.5 Give comprehensive and thorough evaluations of computer systems and their impacts including analysis of possible risks. 2.6 Honor contracts, agreements, and assigned responsibilities 2.7 Improve public understanding of computing and its consequences. 2.8 Access computing and communication resources only when authorized to do so.

Section 3:As an ACM member and an organizational leader, I will . . . 3.1 Articulate social responsibilities of members of an organizational unit and encourage full acceptance of those responsibilities. 3.2 Manage personnel and resources to design and build information systems that enhance the quality of working life. 3.3 Acknowledge and support proper and authorized uses of an organization’s computing and communications resources. 3.4 Ensure that users and those who will be affected by a system have their needs clearly articulated during the assessment and design of requirements; later the system must be validated to meet requirements. 3.5 Articulate and support policies that protect the dignity of users and others affected by a computing system. 3.6 Create opportunities for members of the organization to learn the principles and limitations of computer systems.

Section 4: As an ACM member, I will . . . 4.1 Uphold and promote the principles of this Code. 4.2 Treat violations of this code as inconsistent with membership in the ACM.

O b j e c t i ve s o f C o d e s o f E t h i c s Disciplinary: Ensures professionalism and integrity of its members Advisory: The codes are usually a good source of tips to members Educational: Ethical codes are good educational tools for members of the domain Inspirational: Carry subliminal messages to those using them to inspire them to be “good.” Publicity: create a good clientele is to show that they have a strong code of ethics.

REFLECTIONS ON COMPUTER ETHICS Changing Premises: Different Temptations: Different Means of Delivery: Complacent Society: Ethical Muddles:

Changing Premises Although it is true that the outcome of the ethics value function remains the same, the domain set itself has changed and will keep changing. The number of input possibilities for every human action keeps on growing with new advances in computer technology. For example, take the act of forgery, which traditionally involves taking somebody’s document, making changes to it, and getting a benefit as a result

Different Temptation: Traditional ethics few unethical actions. Richard Rubin said computer technology has generated many more for each input action. Speed Privacy and anonymity Nature of medium Aesthetic attraction Increased availability of potential victims International scope The power to destroy

Speed: The speed of gathering information has greatly increased, causing unethical actions to be carried out in shorter times, thus decreasing the chances of detection. When the chances of being caught are slim, many perpetrator think that they can get away with it.

Privacy and anonymity The great availability of computers and computer- related technology in less visible places like people’s homes; high, cheap and fast communication equipment; and software that can guarantee anonymity are creating a highly tempting environment for unethical acts.

Nature of medium The ability to copy digital data without erasing or the original in any way causes little or no suspicion and hence encourages unethical activities.

Aesthetic attraction Technology, especially when it is new, seems to offer challenges to those who try to use it. Thus, there is a sigh of relief and a sign of great achievement if one overcomes a technological obstacle. In the same way, if an intruder tries to break into a computer system, the sign of success and the (joy) thereafter (after) overshadows(dominates) the incivility of the act itself.

Increased availability of potential victims: With the widespread use of computers and the ever-widening reach of computer networks, an individual can now reach an unprecedented audience. This in itself creates an urge/need to attempt things that one would otherwise not have done.

International scope: The boundary less nature of many computer networks, including the Internet, has created a temptation of its own. Now the entire world is well within reach by a touch of a button. This can tempt many intruders, many trying to circumvent their country’s laws, and others thinking that an illegal act done in another country cannot be prosecuted in their own country. There are lots of temptations here.

The power to destroy: Computers seem to give this enormous invisible power to those who have them. This seemingly omniscient power may be a temptation to some. Although some of these temptations can still be found in the set of the old temptations, most of them are new.

Different Means of Delivery: What used to be the traditional means of carrying out an act like stealing has changed. With the expanded set of outcome possibilities comes expanded delivery systems for the crime. For example, let us go back to the check. The traditional way of cashing a check was to go to the bank

Complacent Society: A majority of computer-related actions are either deliberately ignored by society for fear of publicity or they are hailed as novel science. This says that either members of society are still caught in the spell of the new wonder machine. or that they have gotten so comfortable with the new wonder machine that they let their moral and ethical standards slide.

Ethical Muddles: With the possibility of numerous inputs from events, new difficulties of choice and justification cause ethical dilemmas, creating conflicting arguments and counterarguments on an input possibility of an event. This is because computers produce new situations that sometimes fall within our existing laws, rules, and moral principles, and sometimes fall outside these guidelines