The relationship between theory and methods Chapter 4- AICE Sociology

Positivism Positivism – possible and desirable to study social behavior using similar methods to those used when studying the natural world. Key ideas: Social systems are made up of structures that exist independently of individuals Institutions represent behaviors at a macro level of society Social structures force us to behave in certain ways and shape our choices – while we have choices, it still is limited by social structures Social action is determined by structural forces – these forces make people choose one action over another Social structures are seen as real, objective forces; people cannot stop these forces from acting on them Durkheim – described structural forces in terms of Collective conscience- the expression of a society’s ‘collective will’, which bears down on individuals, shaping their beliefs and behavioral choices Social structures are unseen forces whose effect can be observed in the following ways: Systematic observation Rigorous testing Quantitative measurements that create reliable knowledge which is created by observing social behavior, developing and testing hypotheses, and analyzing and evaluating evidence All this is done to explain initial observations and predict future behaviors.

Positivism continued Scientists must be personally objective – don’t participate in the observed behavior so they don not have bias or influence the data-collection process Quantitative methods are favored because they allow for the collection of objective and reliable data Questionnaires Structured interviews Experiments Comparative and observational studies

Interpretivism (anti-positivism) social reality is formed through interaction awareness of ourselves and our relationship to others gives us our ability to act people exercise “free will” therefore people are unpredictable – don’t always behave in the same way – cannot be studied and explained in the way natural scientists study and explain the non-human world. Free will- the argument that because humans have consciousness they can make free and informed choices about their actions Society does not exist in an objective form, it is experienced subjectively because we give it meaning through behavior people create and “re-create” society daily through our actions.

Realism (blending positivism and interpretivism) 1. The existence of objective social structures (like positivism): this involves understanding what something is, such as empirical evidence of crime. 2. Subjective experience and the social construction of reality (like interpretivism): this involves understanding what something means – for example, how people think about and explain crime. Realism argues both positivism and interpretivism are important To study crime we need to combine an understanding of its empirical reality with its meaning to different individuals To fully understand and explain human behavior, sociologists must be able to study the influence of both structure and action. This involves: Using different methods – qualitative and quantitative Combining different forms of data The idea that what is discovered is more important than how it is discovered – sociologist should be flexible when it comes to choosing research methods and be prepared to use whatever methods are most likely to produce a reliable research study with valid results. Valid knowledge is created by studying the social world in its totality – social structures, social actions and their relationship.

The theoretical, practical, and ethical considerations on research Theoretical research considerations Choose a topic and then select the most appropriate method of collecting data Sociologists need to confront and resolve a range of theoretical questions relating to choice of topic and research method Topic Choice Intended audience Purpose of the research What is considered worthy of being studied is influenced by a researchers methods Personal – if poverty holds no attraction then a researcher is unlikely to study it Institutional – universities and governments are important sources of funding Research funding- the source of funding for academic research - who gave you the money?

Choice of Method Interactionists tend to avoid using statistical methods, mainly because they are not trying to establish causality Positivists are more likely to take the reverse view, mainly because they are not interested in descriptive accounts Simplified distinctions but cannot be applied in all circumstances Therefore we can suggest an association between interpretivism and qualitative research methods, such as focused interviews or participant observation Positivism – quantitative methods such as questionnaires or lab experiments A researcher’s beliefs about the reliability and validity of particular methods will also play a part in which approach they choose for their research These decisions might reflect a researchers value judgements how about something should be studied Judgements based solely on the values of those making a decision; subjective

Practical Research Considerations Topic Choice Practical considerations can influence a researcher’s choice of topic in a number of ways Large-scale research carried out over a long period of time may be expensive Those who commission this research may have an say in the choice of the topic, method and overall conduct of the research Time can be practical consideration in terms of the depth and scope of the research A researcher may know what topic they want to study but it may not be possible to do so. Two important practical considerations when choosing a research topic: Access to research subjects (individuals) Their co-operation in the research Both might be denied – in which researcher might choose to continue anyway by carrying out covert research

Choice of Method Researchers must assess how and why various methods are fit for the purpose of testing a hypothesis or answering a research question. Choice of method is also affected by practical considerations such as the topic being studied – some topics lend themselves more easily to one method than another Quantitative methods are useful when the researcher wants reliable data to establish statistical relationships Qualitative methods are useful when more descriptive research is needed Time is another consideration – could take years Amount of funding available might directly influence a researcher’s choice of method Questionnaires cheaper than in-depth interviews which might be cheaper than participant observation Ethical Issues: refers to the morality of doing something. Ethical questions relating to sociological research involve beliefs about what a researcher should or should not do before, during, and after their research

Ethical Research Considerations Ethical issues- ‘ethics’ refers to the morality of doing something. Legal Considerations Safety Considerations – physical and psychological considerations Ethical Considerations - Is it true? – lying about results - Is it fair? – plagiarism, ownership - Is it wise? – does it damage the human condition, does it lead to a better world.

Reliability and Validity Reliability- this generally refers to the effectiveness of the research approach in generating consisting data. A researcher can check the reliability of their research by repeating (replicating) the research to see if they get the same, or very similar, results Validity- the extent to which a research method measures what it claims to measure construct validity – methods and data are only valid if they actually measure what they claim to be measuring. Ie-crime stats = low construct validity ecological validity – the closer we get to studying people in their natural environment, the more valid the results.

Objectivity Personal objectivity is something all sociologists must actively try to achieve Without it, sociological research has no greater reliability or validity than any other form of knowledge Positivists We can study objective features of the social world (institutions such as families or educational systems) because they are solid and permanent Objectivity requires the researcher to place themselves outside the behavior they are studying Interpretivists Many realities expressed through the various ways in which people see and understand the social world Research is a subjective understanding The researchers role is that of an objective channel through with individuals tell their story to uncover how and why people see the social world in a particular way How we see something is always based on our values; it cannot be separated from how we interpret what we see Pure objectivity – ideal that can never be attained because all research involves some degree of value commitment If sociologists recognize how values impact their work, by identifying the assumptions under which they are working, this research is less value-laden, more reliable and valid than the non-sociologists opinions Objectivity can be problematic in qualitative research – must maintain objective detachment

Representativeness & Sampling Representativeness- the extent to which the characteristics of a sample population accurately reflect the target population. Two related ideas Characteristics of people used in a sample should accurately reflect those of the target population they represent Increased chance of Sampling error- anything in the research design that causes a sample intended to be representative of a target population to become unrepresentative Survey based research based on an unrepresentative sample will lack validity; the findings of the research cannot be validly generalized to the target population Data collected during research process should accurately represent whatever the research claims to represent

Triangulation and methodological pluralism Methodological pluralism- combining research methodologies, such as positivism and interpretivism, in ways that allow each other to complement the other to improve research reliability and validity Triangulation- the use of two or more research methods where the weaknesses of one method, such as a quantitative interview, can be offset by the strengths of another, such as qualitative participant observation.