The Byzantine Empire

Byzantium ca. 1000

Overview Controlled important territory in the Balkans, the northern middle east, and the eastern Mediterranean Political heir to Rome but with own geography and focus Empire lasted 1,000 years between Rome’s collapse and the final overthrow of the regime by Turkish invaders Constantinople was a great city of the world Orthodox Christian churches spread Expanded a major civilization to part of the world not controlled by one- western Russia (current Ukraine and Belarus) Huge impact on Russia Similarities and differences of the two Christian churches Both cases of polytheistic people converting to monotheism Both spread due to missionary activity and appeal of religion itself Both looked to more dominant civilizations in the south for inspiration and trade However, they operated independently

Origins of the Empire In some senses began in 4th century when Romans (Constantine) set up eastern capital in Constantinople (built on modest town called Byzantium) and separate rulers ruled this portion of the empire East had a solid tax base with agrarian production in eastern Mediterranean and trading contacts from Constantinople Latin was language for centuries until Justinian changed it to Greek, which enabled scholars to read ancient Greek texts Benefited from high levels of commerce (new “blood” in bureaucratic positions from Hellenized people long excluded from Roman admin.) Successfully warded off invasions by Sasanian Empire in Persia and the Huns by recruiting armies in the Middle East rather than relying on barbarian troops as the West had done

Justinian’s Achievements 533 CE tried to conquer the west again once the threat of attacks had subsided and borders were secure (heavily influenced by his wife Theodora) Contributions lay in rebuilding Constantinople - Hagia Sophia; codification of Roman law; adding the dome to older Roman architecture; and short-term military conquest (Belisarius made gains in North Africa and Italy but soon were lost) Westward ambitions ultimately weaken empire. Wars cost money- so , increased taxes

Arab Pressure and the Empire’s Defenses Justinian’s successors concentrated on defending the eastern empire even pushing back some Persian advances and forcibly reconverting people to Christianity Mid 7th-century Arab Muslim’s challenging Byzantine naval supremacy and repeatedly attack Constantinople 717-718 CE attack on the capital beaten back because of a new weapon, Greek fire (petroleum, quicklime, and sulfur mixture), that devastated Arab ships Again, money needed for defense, so more taxes. This ultimately weakened the rural population and forced them to greater dependence as army and navy gained more power Muslims conquer Crete in 9th century, which allows them to harass Byzantine shipping in the Mediterranean Bulgaria also pressed down on Balkans but ultimately gets defeated and joins part of the empire in Constantinople

Society and Government Similarities to early patterns in China- emperor ordained by god- Mandate of Heaven- and head of church and state Appointed church bishops and passed religious and secular law At key points women held imperial throne- Empress Theodora (981-1056) Very elaborate bureaucracy developed in the empire Bureaucrats could be recruited from all classes of society, so aristocrats dominated but talent came from elsewhere as well (china sim.) Specialization of bureaucrats Provincial governors appointed Elaborate system of spies Careful military organization Recruited troops locally and gave them land grants in return for service Many outsiders recruited this way Was good enough to ward off invasions by neighbors

Economy Economically dependent on Constantinople’s hold over countryside. Bureaucracy regulated trade and controlled prices Peasant class provided goods and bulk of tax revenues and food prices were kept artificially low to keep them content Had luxury goods like silk (learned from Chinese techniques) Merchant class had little political power (in contrast to neighbors and more similar to the Chinese)

Icons and Iconoclasm Culturally depended on secular traditions of Hellenism (important in the education of bureaucrats) and on evolving traditions of orthodox Christianity Little cultural innovation; mostly just preserving older forms Art and architecture were the exceptions- mosaics, icons, domed buildings Icon painting- paintings of saints and other religious figures, often richly ornamented Iconoclasm- breaking of images Controversy erupted in 8th century when new emperor banned icons and use of religious images in worship Byzantine monks protested and icons were gradually restored

Split Between East and West General orientation towards Asia and Eastern Europe Translation of the Greek Bible into Latin Attempt for the Pope to gain control (incl. intervening in icon dispute) Religious art different All these reasons above helped divide it but not permanently separate it 1054- church patriarch in Constantinople raised old issues, such as celibacy and the bread used at worship- leading the Pope to excommunicate him and his followers. In turn, the patriarch excommunicated all Roman Catholics

The Empire’s Decline After the split long period of decline Turkish invaders (who had converted to Islam in Central Asia) put pressure on, 11th century Seljuks seized almost all the Asiatic provinces- cutting off important tax revenues and food supply. 1071- Byzantine emperor lost battle of Mazikert Creation of new independent Slavic kingdoms, such as Serbia, showed the empire’s diminished power Asked for West’s help but was denied. Actually, helped Crusaders to go in 1453 Turks seize Constantinople and by 1461 most of the remaining pockets of Byzantine control

Effects of the Fall Byzantine had been an important and durable empire and an anchor in the Mediterranean amid surge of Islam Trading contacts and ability to preserve and spread classical and Christian learning made it a vital unit After fall influence affected other societies inc. Ottoman empire