Sociology and science: positivism The link between science and sociology

Positivist sociologists like comte and Durkheim copied the methods of the natural and physical sciences Partly because they wanted to gain status for sociology but also because they thought that it was useful to collect objective statistical data. For example these statistics can be used to: A: detect trends in peoples behaviour B: to make comparisons between different countries and social groups

The techniques used by positivists to collect statistical data are Experiments Surveys Postal closed questionnaires Non participation obvs Structured interviews Self completion questionnaire Content analysis Official statistics

Key words associated with positivism Quantitative External forces Variables – dependent and independent Sociology is a science Objectivity Quantifiable Hypothesis Reliable Detached Social facts General law Real law Causation Correlation Verification Inductive reason / induction

The influence of science Positivism can be defined as the view that ‘empirical science is the only valid form of human knowledge’ Comte: Argued that the scientific study of science should be confined to collecting info that can be objectively observed and classified For comte, it was possible to turn objective ‘facts’ about the world into statistical form He argued that sociologists shouldn’t be concerned with the internal meanings, motives, feelings and emotions of individuals Comte assumed that the only way to study the social world was to use a scientific method developed by the natural sciences He thought that: observation, categorisation and the measurement of facts were important to avoid abstract theorising

Using methods of the natural sciences Positivists believe that it is possible and desirable to apply the logic and methods of the natural sciences to the study of society. Doing so will bring us truth, objective knowledge of the same type as that found in the natural sciences This will provide the basis for solving social problems and achieving progress Methods drawn from the natural and physical sciences -> chemistry, biology, physics

A key feature of the positivist approach is the belief that reality exists outside and independently of the human mind Natural is made up of objective, observable, physical facts, such as rocks, cells, stars etc, which are external to our minds and which exist whether we like it or not Similarly, society is an objective factual reality- it is a real ‘thing’ made up of social facts that exist ‘out there’, independently of individuals, just like the physical world

Patterns, laws and inductive reasoning There are regular patterns in society the same way we know that water boils at 100 degrees. We should observe, identify, measure and record these patterns which can lead us to explaining them They use inductive reasoning meaning that they gather loads of data about the world through observation and measurement and then find general patterns

Verificationism Positivists need to have theories that are true, otherwise they are pointless. They need to make sure that all the evidence they have verifies their theory they have made. When it does they claim to have discovered a ‘general law’ Inductive reasoning o=in its nature verifies theories as the theories are built upon date They explain the patterns in society as being caused by social factors For instance, the social fact of egoistical suicide might be explained by the social fact of social integration of moral regulation If we can explain social facts by other social facts then this can help improve society- influencing policies

Inductive methodology Positivism uses a methodology that starts by collecting date The data is analysed and out of this theories are developed Once this theory has been developed, it can be tested against other sets of date to see if it is confirmed or not (validity) Thus, the data is provisional until it has been verified by other researchers

Objective quantitative research They want us all to use scientific methods as it is the best way to test a hypothesis in a controlled way They like quantitative data ebcasue it produces mathematically precise statements about the relationship/ pattern they are studying They aimto find cause and effect in studying this way They try to remove all subjective feelings and opinions much like natural science, no matter how hard you boil water at 2 degrees it will only ever boil at 100

Objectivity Scientists shouldn’t allow their own personal values to affect the investigation If this does happen then it may invalidate the research by biasing their findings Support detachment

Durkheim Agreed that sociologists should confine themselves to studying social facts. And he followed the logic and methods of prescriptivism Argued that scientific methods could be used to show that an individuals behaviours may be determined by the external world around them To demonstrate this he used a comparative method of comparing statistics on the area of suicide

Durkheim and suicide

Durkheim thought suicide statistics were objective indicators of unusual deaths is they were definite facts They demonstrated collective patters in behaviour showing that some groups were more prone to suicide than others eg the single, widowed, divorced, and the childless He challenged the view that suicide wasn’t an individual action but one that was dictated by the extent that someone was integrated or regulated into society or a social group

Suicide rates are social facts Durkheim believes that suicide is a social fact, which is a social force external to the individual in the structure of society He said that suicide cannot be down to just individual motives because there were vast differences between groups in societies and societies compared to other societies. So it has to be something in the social structure which causes it. Thus suicide is a social factor Suicide rates are social facts/real laws as different levels of integration and regulation produces different rates of suicide Durkheim studied quantitative suicide rates from European countries for decades and found that: Different societies have different rates Rates varied between social groups Suicide rates within a society remained more or less constant over time

For Durkheim he said that these rates were due to two social factors/ independent variables: Integration Regulation How far individuals feel like they belong to a group How far individuals acts are kept in check by norms

Classifications of suicide (4)

People feel they don’t belong and cant cope Eg kurt cobain Egoistical suicide (affected by too little integration) Alturistic suicide (affected too much by integration) People feel they don’t belong and cant cope Eg kurt cobain Eg catholics have a lower rate than protestants because they are tightly integrated into shared rituals Society is seen as more important than themselves Sacrifice themselves for the good of society Eg suicide bombers Eg Japanese kamikaze pilots

Where societies norms become out of date or blurred from sudden change Atomistic suicide (affected by too little regulation) Fatalistic suicide (too much regulation) Where societies norms become out of date or blurred from sudden change Things may be changing too quickly and individuals may feel out of control Eg economic booms and slumps Where societies control individuals completely like slaves or prisoners Where people feel stifled and trapped, cant make decisions because of tight control Eg concentration camp/prisoners Eg terminally ill individuals

Evaluation of durkheims study Suicide rates were not as reliably collected back in his day as they didn’t have the national administrative capabilities and rarely conducted autopsies to find out whether something was suicide or not Although his aim to conduct scientific research is still good Praised for over 70 years of good use of positivist research

Evaluation of positivism in general by interpretivism Interpretivists take the view that since humans think and reflect, scientific methods are inappropriate for the study of society Unlike objects in nature, humans can change their behaviour if they know they are being observed (hawthorne effect) It fails to realise that behaviour is not the result of external influences, but the result of experience through interactions with others Interpretivists question whether its possible for researchers to be truly objective when carrying out research Interpretivists abandon the detachment/objectivity favoured by positivist and instead suggest that researchers need to see the world from the eyes of the world that they are studying